pág. 11683
SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY-BASED
ECOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM:
OAXACA AND PUEBLA CASES IN MEXICO
MECANISMO PARA EL DESARROLLO SOSTENIBLE
DEL ECOTURISMO COMUNITARIO:
LOS CASOS DE OAXACA Y PUEBLA, MÉXICO
Naotaka Hirami
Kagawa University, Japón
Martha Rosa Hidalgo Morales
Kagawa University, Japón
pág. 11684
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v8i4.13334
Sustainable Community-Based Ecotourism Development Mechanism:
Oaxaca and Puebla Cases in Mexico
Naotaka Hirami 1
hirami.naotaka@kagawa-u.ac.jp
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1889-630X
Kagawa University
Japón
Martha Rosa Hidalgo Morales
hidalgo.martha@kagawa-u.ac.jp
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2526-9490
Kagawa University
Japón
ABSTRACT
This research intends to identify the processes and factors of Community-Based Ecotourism (CBET)
development in indigenous communities, focusing specifically on the states of Oaxaca and Puebla,
Mexico. Six different CBET initiatives were investigated. Two methodologies were used for data
collection. One approach involves conducting in-depth interviews with community representatives to
potentially refine the hypothesis from prior studies and preliminary fieldwork. The other approach uses
a questionnaire for the quantitative validation of the hypothesis. The findings revealed core factors
influencing CBET success, such as deep community pride, an active community-centered approach,
management skills, and the integration of ecotourism with traditional lifestyles. Surprisingly,
communities demonstrated a willingness to embrace government support as a pivotal catalyst in the
initial phases of CBET endeavors. This openness is influenced by specific national laws that endorse
and safeguard indigenous autonomy, ensuring that accrued benefits are retained within the community.
This study underscores the delicate balance between heritage preservation and a thoughtful acceptance
of modern progress, offering valuable insights to CBET.
Key words: community-based ecotourism, indigenous communities, sustainability, CBET development
factors
1
Autor principal.
Correspondencia: hirami.naotaka@kagawa-u.ac.jp
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v8i4.13334
Sustainable Community-Based Ecotourism Development Mechanism:
Oaxaca and Puebla Cases in Mexico
Naotaka Hirami 1
hirami.naotaka@kagawa-u.ac.jp
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1889-630X
Kagawa University
Japón
Martha Rosa Hidalgo Morales
hidalgo.martha@kagawa-u.ac.jp
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2526-9490
Kagawa University
Japón
ABSTRACT
This research intends to identify the processes and factors of Community-Based Ecotourism (CBET)
development in indigenous communities, focusing specifically on the states of Oaxaca and Puebla,
Mexico. Six different CBET initiatives were investigated. Two methodologies were used for data
collection. One approach involves conducting in-depth interviews with community representatives to
potentially refine the hypothesis from prior studies and preliminary fieldwork. The other approach uses
a questionnaire for the quantitative validation of the hypothesis. The findings revealed core factors
influencing CBET success, such as deep community pride, an active community-centered approach,
management skills, and the integration of ecotourism with traditional lifestyles. Surprisingly,
communities demonstrated a willingness to embrace government support as a pivotal catalyst in the
initial phases of CBET endeavors. This openness is influenced by specific national laws that endorse
and safeguard indigenous autonomy, ensuring that accrued benefits are retained within the community.
This study underscores the delicate balance between heritage preservation and a thoughtful acceptance
of modern progress, offering valuable insights to CBET.
Key words: community-based ecotourism, indigenous communities, sustainability, CBET development
factors
1
Autor principal.
Correspondencia: hirami.naotaka@kagawa-u.ac.jp
pág. 11685
Mecanismo para el Desarrollo Sostenible del Ecoturismo Comunitario:
Los Casos de Oaxaca y Puebla, México
RESUMEN
Esta investigación tiene como objetivo identificar los procesos y factores clave en el desarrollo del
Ecoturismo Comunitario (CBET) en comunidades indígenas, con un enfoque específico en los estados
de Oaxaca y Puebla, México. Se analizaron seis iniciativas distintas de CBET, utilizando dos
metodologías de recolección de datos. Primero, se realizaron entrevistas detalladas con representantes
comunitarios para ajustar la hipótesis propuesta a partir de estudios previos y observaciones de campo.
Posteriormente, se aplicó un cuestionario para validar cuantitativamente dicha hipótesis. Los resultados
revelaron factores esenciales para el éxito del CBET, como un fuerte sentido de orgullo comunitario,
un enfoque participativo centrado en la comunidad, habilidades de gestión eficaces y la integración del
ecoturismo con el estilo de vida tradicional. De manera inesperada, las comunidades mostraron una
disposición a aceptar el apoyo gubernamental como un catalizador crucial en las fases iniciales de los
proyectos de CBET. Esta apertura está influenciada por leyes nacionales específicas que respaldan y
protegen la autonomía indígena, asegurando que los beneficios generados permanezcan dentro de la
comunidad. Este estudio subraya el delicado equilibrio entre la preservación del patrimonio y la
adopción consciente del progreso moderno, ofreciendo valiosas perspectivas para el CBET.
Palabras claves: ecoturismo comunitario, comunidades indígenas, sostenibilidad, factores de desarrollo
del CBET
Artículo recibido 10 julio 2024
Aceptado para publicación: 15 agosto 2024
Mecanismo para el Desarrollo Sostenible del Ecoturismo Comunitario:
Los Casos de Oaxaca y Puebla, México
RESUMEN
Esta investigación tiene como objetivo identificar los procesos y factores clave en el desarrollo del
Ecoturismo Comunitario (CBET) en comunidades indígenas, con un enfoque específico en los estados
de Oaxaca y Puebla, México. Se analizaron seis iniciativas distintas de CBET, utilizando dos
metodologías de recolección de datos. Primero, se realizaron entrevistas detalladas con representantes
comunitarios para ajustar la hipótesis propuesta a partir de estudios previos y observaciones de campo.
Posteriormente, se aplicó un cuestionario para validar cuantitativamente dicha hipótesis. Los resultados
revelaron factores esenciales para el éxito del CBET, como un fuerte sentido de orgullo comunitario,
un enfoque participativo centrado en la comunidad, habilidades de gestión eficaces y la integración del
ecoturismo con el estilo de vida tradicional. De manera inesperada, las comunidades mostraron una
disposición a aceptar el apoyo gubernamental como un catalizador crucial en las fases iniciales de los
proyectos de CBET. Esta apertura está influenciada por leyes nacionales específicas que respaldan y
protegen la autonomía indígena, asegurando que los beneficios generados permanezcan dentro de la
comunidad. Este estudio subraya el delicado equilibrio entre la preservación del patrimonio y la
adopción consciente del progreso moderno, ofreciendo valiosas perspectivas para el CBET.
Palabras claves: ecoturismo comunitario, comunidades indígenas, sostenibilidad, factores de desarrollo
del CBET
Artículo recibido 10 julio 2024
Aceptado para publicación: 15 agosto 2024
pág. 11686
INTRODUCTION
The tourism industry plays a crucial role in the global economy, accounting for about 10% of the
world’s Gross Domestic Product. As stated by the World Travel & Tourism Council (2022), this level
of participation involves 10% of the global population. These figures highlight tourism’s broad impacts
on society and the environment.
In recent years, there has been a noticeable shift from traditional mass tourism to more sustainable
models (Baloch, et al., 2023, Mudasir, et al., 2020, Salman, et al. 2020, Lazic, S., & Gasparini, M.L.,
2023). A prominent example is community-based ecotourism (CBET), which emphasizes local
communities. However, CBET's growth is uneven, with some regions experiencing swift development
while others lag. This disparity suggests underlying factors influencing its success.
This report aims to clarify the position of CBET through an overview of prior studies. Later, we address
the research question: "What factors drive local community members to form successful CBET?” Our
approach involved field research focusing on specific regions of Oaxaca and Puebla, Mexico, chosen
for their blend of indigenous communities, cultural heritage, and abundant natural resources. We
performed qualitative interviews with community coordinators and quantitative questionnaires directed
at community members involved in local ecotourism.
Legal Protection of Indigenous Rights
Examining Mexico as an example, indigenous rights are stipulated at both the federal and state levels.
At the federal level, there exists the "National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples
Act” (Ley de la Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas, 2003). At the state
level, for instance, the "Law on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and Communities of the State of
Oaxaca” (Ley de Derechos de los Pueblos y Comunidades Indígenas del Estado de Oaxaca, 1998) can
be cited. These laws address self-determination, autonomy, and socio-economic development for
indigenous peoples. Specifically, in the case of Oaxaca, each indigenous community is recognized to
have its own "internal normative system". These internal norms, related to family relationships, civil
life, community life, and conflict resolution, are valid as long as they do not contradict state or federal
laws.
INTRODUCTION
The tourism industry plays a crucial role in the global economy, accounting for about 10% of the
world’s Gross Domestic Product. As stated by the World Travel & Tourism Council (2022), this level
of participation involves 10% of the global population. These figures highlight tourism’s broad impacts
on society and the environment.
In recent years, there has been a noticeable shift from traditional mass tourism to more sustainable
models (Baloch, et al., 2023, Mudasir, et al., 2020, Salman, et al. 2020, Lazic, S., & Gasparini, M.L.,
2023). A prominent example is community-based ecotourism (CBET), which emphasizes local
communities. However, CBET's growth is uneven, with some regions experiencing swift development
while others lag. This disparity suggests underlying factors influencing its success.
This report aims to clarify the position of CBET through an overview of prior studies. Later, we address
the research question: "What factors drive local community members to form successful CBET?” Our
approach involved field research focusing on specific regions of Oaxaca and Puebla, Mexico, chosen
for their blend of indigenous communities, cultural heritage, and abundant natural resources. We
performed qualitative interviews with community coordinators and quantitative questionnaires directed
at community members involved in local ecotourism.
Legal Protection of Indigenous Rights
Examining Mexico as an example, indigenous rights are stipulated at both the federal and state levels.
At the federal level, there exists the "National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples
Act” (Ley de la Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas, 2003). At the state
level, for instance, the "Law on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and Communities of the State of
Oaxaca” (Ley de Derechos de los Pueblos y Comunidades Indígenas del Estado de Oaxaca, 1998) can
be cited. These laws address self-determination, autonomy, and socio-economic development for
indigenous peoples. Specifically, in the case of Oaxaca, each indigenous community is recognized to
have its own "internal normative system". These internal norms, related to family relationships, civil
life, community life, and conflict resolution, are valid as long as they do not contradict state or federal
laws.
pág. 11687
Local governments must fairly distribute funds and other revenues among municipality communities.
Development plans and programs are formulated and evaluated in agreement with indigenous
communities, with activities and services executed transparently and efficiently, including budget
allocations.
Important factors applicable to CBET
Rodrigues and Prideaux (2017) conducted interviews on Marajó Island in the Brazilian Amazon to build
a model based on an action pathway approach. Their findings indicated that participation, partnerships,
encouragement, and the acquisition of skills are important elements in developing CBT, which is a core
component of CBET, stating:
“…transfer of ownership from an external actor to the community will only be successful if the
community has the required management skills necessary to run the project as a commercial business.”
Fletcher C, etal (2018), on the other hand, discusses the factors influencing successful indigenous
tourism development through literature review of selected cases and interviews with key government
& non-government organizations, indigenous tourism organizations and operators. A detailed technical
development process has been summarized with detailed enabling factors, concluding:
“…the effectiveness of governance structure and the level of involvement of Indigenous stakeholders
as well as the selection of legislative and policy instruments are key to ensure a more sustainable
approach to Indigenous tourism development, …”
Sartika, I. and Wargadinata, E. (2019) attempted to clarify the specific requirements by identifying CBT
success factors in Indonesia, highlighting six key determinants: ownership, participation, responsibility,
sharing of resources, leadership and partnership based on the simple Yes/No survey of stakeholders
involved in CBT management. They concluded that the first three factors―ownership, participation
and responsibility are the important factors.
The prior researches mentioned above indicate that involvement of indigenous stakeholders to CBT
development with required management skills is essential for CBT development, and a number of
factors play an important role; however, simpler explanation of the development process with enabling
factors, which can be applicable to general cases, is yet to be addressed.
Successful Cooperative Association case for CBET
Local governments must fairly distribute funds and other revenues among municipality communities.
Development plans and programs are formulated and evaluated in agreement with indigenous
communities, with activities and services executed transparently and efficiently, including budget
allocations.
Important factors applicable to CBET
Rodrigues and Prideaux (2017) conducted interviews on Marajó Island in the Brazilian Amazon to build
a model based on an action pathway approach. Their findings indicated that participation, partnerships,
encouragement, and the acquisition of skills are important elements in developing CBT, which is a core
component of CBET, stating:
“…transfer of ownership from an external actor to the community will only be successful if the
community has the required management skills necessary to run the project as a commercial business.”
Fletcher C, etal (2018), on the other hand, discusses the factors influencing successful indigenous
tourism development through literature review of selected cases and interviews with key government
& non-government organizations, indigenous tourism organizations and operators. A detailed technical
development process has been summarized with detailed enabling factors, concluding:
“…the effectiveness of governance structure and the level of involvement of Indigenous stakeholders
as well as the selection of legislative and policy instruments are key to ensure a more sustainable
approach to Indigenous tourism development, …”
Sartika, I. and Wargadinata, E. (2019) attempted to clarify the specific requirements by identifying CBT
success factors in Indonesia, highlighting six key determinants: ownership, participation, responsibility,
sharing of resources, leadership and partnership based on the simple Yes/No survey of stakeholders
involved in CBT management. They concluded that the first three factors―ownership, participation
and responsibility are the important factors.
The prior researches mentioned above indicate that involvement of indigenous stakeholders to CBT
development with required management skills is essential for CBT development, and a number of
factors play an important role; however, simpler explanation of the development process with enabling
factors, which can be applicable to general cases, is yet to be addressed.
Successful Cooperative Association case for CBET
pág. 11688
Takeda (2017) studied the effectiveness of a CBET case in Costa Rica, focusing on the cooperative
association Coopesilencio R.L., established by the residents of the wildlife-rich El Silencio region. After
a national wildlife conservation center was closed due to government policy, Coopesilencio R.L.
received authorization to operate at the intersection of conservation and tourism initiatives.
Consequently, El Silencio emerged as a popular tourist destination, with the sustainability of its tourism
operations tied to environmental conservation efforts. This case suggests that the cooperative
association involving local community members would be effective for sustainable CBET development.
It is assumed that such associations empower communities by enabling input at every decision-making
stage concerning managements of local operation, touristic activities, environmental preservations
(Toko, 2014).
These cases demonstrate that local cooperatives often oversee successful CBET initiatives rather than
individual stakeholders or external entities. Also, these cooperatives can sustainably and equitably
tackle poverty and conservation challenges in unison. By providing essential services and educational
opportunities, CBET can have positive effects beyond tourism, fostering broader economic
development and societal well-being.
Research Question
While there has been extensive research on CBET establishments, the factors identified so far span
across different stages or provide specific explanations, making them partial and unclear in illustrating
the overall connections. This research aims to uncover the variables that shape the entire CBET journey,
from its inception to its evolution into a sustainable industry. By adopting a stage-oriented approach,
this study addresses the earlier research question: “What factors drive local community members to
form successful CBET?”
Pride and its Impact on Cooperative Formation
The term “pride” consistently emerges in various prior studies. Having pride in the place where one is
born and/or lives naturally motivates the preservation of its nature and culture. Based on an extensive
review of the literature, Guerrero-Moreno, M.A. and Oliveira-Junior, J.M.B. (2024) describe CBT as
follows:
Takeda (2017) studied the effectiveness of a CBET case in Costa Rica, focusing on the cooperative
association Coopesilencio R.L., established by the residents of the wildlife-rich El Silencio region. After
a national wildlife conservation center was closed due to government policy, Coopesilencio R.L.
received authorization to operate at the intersection of conservation and tourism initiatives.
Consequently, El Silencio emerged as a popular tourist destination, with the sustainability of its tourism
operations tied to environmental conservation efforts. This case suggests that the cooperative
association involving local community members would be effective for sustainable CBET development.
It is assumed that such associations empower communities by enabling input at every decision-making
stage concerning managements of local operation, touristic activities, environmental preservations
(Toko, 2014).
These cases demonstrate that local cooperatives often oversee successful CBET initiatives rather than
individual stakeholders or external entities. Also, these cooperatives can sustainably and equitably
tackle poverty and conservation challenges in unison. By providing essential services and educational
opportunities, CBET can have positive effects beyond tourism, fostering broader economic
development and societal well-being.
Research Question
While there has been extensive research on CBET establishments, the factors identified so far span
across different stages or provide specific explanations, making them partial and unclear in illustrating
the overall connections. This research aims to uncover the variables that shape the entire CBET journey,
from its inception to its evolution into a sustainable industry. By adopting a stage-oriented approach,
this study addresses the earlier research question: “What factors drive local community members to
form successful CBET?”
Pride and its Impact on Cooperative Formation
The term “pride” consistently emerges in various prior studies. Having pride in the place where one is
born and/or lives naturally motivates the preservation of its nature and culture. Based on an extensive
review of the literature, Guerrero-Moreno, M.A. and Oliveira-Junior, J.M.B. (2024) describe CBT as
follows:
pág. 11689
“CBT constitutes a type of tourism that focuses on environmental, social, and cultural sustainability. …
used as a tool for rural growth …. As a result of these incentives, many CBT programs in developed
countries have evolved into community-based enterprise development.”
Furthermore, the concept that indigenous pride associated with a desire to preserve environmental,
social, and cultural sustainability drives cooperative organization is generally supported in community-
based tourism (Usmonova, etal., 2022)."
Participation of Local Community Members in the Management of CBET
Building on the understanding of pride and motivation as central themes in the previous section, we
focus on another critical element in CBET－the participation of local community members. To explore
this aspect further, one of the authors, Hirami, N., visited Uakari Lodge in the Mamirauá Reserve, Brazil,
and conducted a preliminary study (Hirami, N., 2021). The findings are summarized as follows:
Uakari Lodge is famous for the presence of red-faced "Uakari" monkeys exclusive to this region. This
unique establishment, which floats on the Amazon River, offers many activities like trekking, bird
watching. Guests can also visit the indigenous communities within the Mamirauá Sustainable
Development Reserve, gaining insights into their way of life. The indigenous inhabitants are encouraged
by the opportunity to host tourists and are invariably warm and welcoming with a pride of their
community.
Ecotourism activities at Uakari Lodge seemed well-established and managed. Much of this success can
be attributed to the Mamirauá Project, initiated in 1992 to promote ecotourism. While funded by the
national government, the organization operates autonomously, positioning it as a quasi-governmental
agency.
Building upon the establishment and management of Uakari Lodge, there is a strong emphasis on its
relationship with the local community. As mentioned on their homepage (Uakari Lodge, n.d.):
“Most of the employees are from the riverside communities, from management to local guides,
housekeepers, cooks and assistants. The Lodge's team works on a rotating basis - each person works an
average of 10 days a month and then returns home. The objective is that there is no dependence on
tourism and that they can continue to exercise their traditional activities.”
“CBT constitutes a type of tourism that focuses on environmental, social, and cultural sustainability. …
used as a tool for rural growth …. As a result of these incentives, many CBT programs in developed
countries have evolved into community-based enterprise development.”
Furthermore, the concept that indigenous pride associated with a desire to preserve environmental,
social, and cultural sustainability drives cooperative organization is generally supported in community-
based tourism (Usmonova, etal., 2022)."
Participation of Local Community Members in the Management of CBET
Building on the understanding of pride and motivation as central themes in the previous section, we
focus on another critical element in CBET－the participation of local community members. To explore
this aspect further, one of the authors, Hirami, N., visited Uakari Lodge in the Mamirauá Reserve, Brazil,
and conducted a preliminary study (Hirami, N., 2021). The findings are summarized as follows:
Uakari Lodge is famous for the presence of red-faced "Uakari" monkeys exclusive to this region. This
unique establishment, which floats on the Amazon River, offers many activities like trekking, bird
watching. Guests can also visit the indigenous communities within the Mamirauá Sustainable
Development Reserve, gaining insights into their way of life. The indigenous inhabitants are encouraged
by the opportunity to host tourists and are invariably warm and welcoming with a pride of their
community.
Ecotourism activities at Uakari Lodge seemed well-established and managed. Much of this success can
be attributed to the Mamirauá Project, initiated in 1992 to promote ecotourism. While funded by the
national government, the organization operates autonomously, positioning it as a quasi-governmental
agency.
Building upon the establishment and management of Uakari Lodge, there is a strong emphasis on its
relationship with the local community. As mentioned on their homepage (Uakari Lodge, n.d.):
“Most of the employees are from the riverside communities, from management to local guides,
housekeepers, cooks and assistants. The Lodge's team works on a rotating basis - each person works an
average of 10 days a month and then returns home. The objective is that there is no dependence on
tourism and that they can continue to exercise their traditional activities.”
pág. 11690
This policy shows Uakari Lodge's commitment to balance. While the lodge requires varied roles, it
ensures that community members can maintain their regular lifestyles. This approach supports local
employment, strengthens the community's economy, and preserves traditional activities. It also provides
a buffer against the unpredictability of tourism, as seen during the COVID-19 pandemic. This adaptable
employment model emerges as a cornerstone for the lodge's sustainable operations.
With these practices in place, further insights were sought. A semi-structured interview was conducted
on-site with the lodge manager on October 22, 2019, highlighting the following key strategies:
Incentive Program for Local Communities: For every overnight guest at the lodge, 60 Reais (October
22, 2019) is accrued throughout the year. This amount is later distributed to the communities based on
their contribution, which are measured in points. This system encourages community members to
collaborate, fostering unity and pride within the community.
Transfer of Operating Entity: Currently, eight non-indigenous staff employed by the Mamirauá Institute
for Sustainable Development run the lodge. In addition, more than 20 employees from the local
community work in three rotating shifts. Remarkably, nearly 90% of the lodge's operations are already
managed by indigenous locals. By 2022, the goal was to transition 100% of the lodge's operations from
the institute to the local community(†1).
This strategic incentive program provides practical education and training to local community members,
equipping them with a sense of ownership, responsibility, and the necessary skills. It also instills pride
in their heritage, encouraging them to actively engage in ecotourism, which in turn strengthens
community bonds.
Given these insights, Uakari Lodge's approach to ecotourism emerges as a potent model for establishing
CBET that fosters active local community involvement.
Development Factors and Their Relationship
Based on the observation mentioned above, one of the authors, Hirami, N., hypothesized specific
development factors（Factors 1 to 4）and their interrelations for the sustainable CBET, as illustrated
in Figure 1(†2). Recognizing and understanding these factors may make replicating and expanding CBET
models in various communities feasible. Each factor is characterized as follows:
This policy shows Uakari Lodge's commitment to balance. While the lodge requires varied roles, it
ensures that community members can maintain their regular lifestyles. This approach supports local
employment, strengthens the community's economy, and preserves traditional activities. It also provides
a buffer against the unpredictability of tourism, as seen during the COVID-19 pandemic. This adaptable
employment model emerges as a cornerstone for the lodge's sustainable operations.
With these practices in place, further insights were sought. A semi-structured interview was conducted
on-site with the lodge manager on October 22, 2019, highlighting the following key strategies:
Incentive Program for Local Communities: For every overnight guest at the lodge, 60 Reais (October
22, 2019) is accrued throughout the year. This amount is later distributed to the communities based on
their contribution, which are measured in points. This system encourages community members to
collaborate, fostering unity and pride within the community.
Transfer of Operating Entity: Currently, eight non-indigenous staff employed by the Mamirauá Institute
for Sustainable Development run the lodge. In addition, more than 20 employees from the local
community work in three rotating shifts. Remarkably, nearly 90% of the lodge's operations are already
managed by indigenous locals. By 2022, the goal was to transition 100% of the lodge's operations from
the institute to the local community(†1).
This strategic incentive program provides practical education and training to local community members,
equipping them with a sense of ownership, responsibility, and the necessary skills. It also instills pride
in their heritage, encouraging them to actively engage in ecotourism, which in turn strengthens
community bonds.
Given these insights, Uakari Lodge's approach to ecotourism emerges as a potent model for establishing
CBET that fosters active local community involvement.
Development Factors and Their Relationship
Based on the observation mentioned above, one of the authors, Hirami, N., hypothesized specific
development factors（Factors 1 to 4）and their interrelations for the sustainable CBET, as illustrated
in Figure 1(†2). Recognizing and understanding these factors may make replicating and expanding CBET
models in various communities feasible. Each factor is characterized as follows:
pág. 11691
Factor 1: Community pride/Motivation for the maintenance of nature and culture – driving the
community to establish local cooperative associations.
Factor 2: Cooperative association establishment – providing an avenue for members to be actively
involved in all decision-making and operational phases.
Factor 3: CBET management and operational skills – ensuring ecotourism is operated and overseen by
community members.
Factor 4: Ecotourism as a complementary activity – preserving traditional occupations and lifestyles
while integrating them with ecotourism initiatives
Figure 1: Key factors and their relationship to establish CBET
METHODOLOGY
To validate the hypothesis presented earlier, we selected the states of Oaxaca and Puebla in Mexico as
our investigation sites for CBET, searching for a compelling combination of factors. These states harbor
a substantial part of Mexico's indigenous population, with 14.4% residing in Oaxaca and 9.1% in Puebla
(Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía [INEGI], 2020), hosting three major indigenous groups:
Nahuas, Mixtecs, and Zapotecs (Instituto Nacional de los Pueblos Indígenas [INPI], 2020). Moreover,
Oaxaca and Puebla rank among the top 5 states recognized for their high biodiversity, prompting
conservation efforts by the Mexican government to safeguard their rich ecosystems (Comisión Nacional
para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad [CONABIO], 2011, 2022).
We examined six distinct CBET initiatives, three in each state, as outlined below. Notably, communities
(†1) Due to the pandemic, tourism activity seems to have stopped for a few years, and the transition plan.
(†2) The concept of Factors 1 to 4 was originally presented in the “Second Trilateral Symposium on SDGs” at Kagawa
University on 30 August 2023 by one of the authors, Hirami, N., and have been updated.
Factor 1: Community pride/Motivation for the maintenance of nature and culture – driving the
community to establish local cooperative associations.
Factor 2: Cooperative association establishment – providing an avenue for members to be actively
involved in all decision-making and operational phases.
Factor 3: CBET management and operational skills – ensuring ecotourism is operated and overseen by
community members.
Factor 4: Ecotourism as a complementary activity – preserving traditional occupations and lifestyles
while integrating them with ecotourism initiatives
Figure 1: Key factors and their relationship to establish CBET
METHODOLOGY
To validate the hypothesis presented earlier, we selected the states of Oaxaca and Puebla in Mexico as
our investigation sites for CBET, searching for a compelling combination of factors. These states harbor
a substantial part of Mexico's indigenous population, with 14.4% residing in Oaxaca and 9.1% in Puebla
(Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía [INEGI], 2020), hosting three major indigenous groups:
Nahuas, Mixtecs, and Zapotecs (Instituto Nacional de los Pueblos Indígenas [INPI], 2020). Moreover,
Oaxaca and Puebla rank among the top 5 states recognized for their high biodiversity, prompting
conservation efforts by the Mexican government to safeguard their rich ecosystems (Comisión Nacional
para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad [CONABIO], 2011, 2022).
We examined six distinct CBET initiatives, three in each state, as outlined below. Notably, communities
(†1) Due to the pandemic, tourism activity seems to have stopped for a few years, and the transition plan.
(†2) The concept of Factors 1 to 4 was originally presented in the “Second Trilateral Symposium on SDGs” at Kagawa
University on 30 August 2023 by one of the authors, Hirami, N., and have been updated.
pág. 11692
➀ to ⑤ are situated along the Sierra Norte mountain region in Oaxaca, and all are affiliated with the
"Pueblos Mancomunados" (PM) initiative.
Locations visited in Oaxaca includes:
① Cuajimoloyas (PM initiative)
② Benito Juárez (PM initiative)
③ La Nevería (PM initiative)
④ Latuvi (PM initiative)
⑤ Capulalpam (PM initiative)
⑥ El Almacén Mujeres Milenarias
⑦ Apoala
Locations visited in Puebla:
⑧ Taselotzin Hotel
⑨ Cuetzalan Ecoturismo Rural
⑩ Tosepan Kali Cooperative
Two Separate Methodologies
In this research, two complementary methodologies were simultaneously conducted, one being in-depth
interview to a representative of each community, and the other being face-to-face questionnaire survey
to the people involved in the local CBET on-site. The first methodology aims to investigate the potential
update of the hypothesis presented earlier with representatives such as community coordinators or their
equivalents in a semi-structured style wherever they are available during our visits.
The second one is to validate the hypothesis quantitatively. We distributed questionnaires to actively
engaged CBET members, such as tour guides, tourist information staff, transport drivers, restaurant
workers, and housekeepers. We used a quantitative approach with a 5-point Likert scale to gather
valuable insights about their perspectives. For further details on the questionnaire content, refer to [Q.1]
to [Q.32] described in Figures. 2 to 10.
➀ to ⑤ are situated along the Sierra Norte mountain region in Oaxaca, and all are affiliated with the
"Pueblos Mancomunados" (PM) initiative.
Locations visited in Oaxaca includes:
① Cuajimoloyas (PM initiative)
② Benito Juárez (PM initiative)
③ La Nevería (PM initiative)
④ Latuvi (PM initiative)
⑤ Capulalpam (PM initiative)
⑥ El Almacén Mujeres Milenarias
⑦ Apoala
Locations visited in Puebla:
⑧ Taselotzin Hotel
⑨ Cuetzalan Ecoturismo Rural
⑩ Tosepan Kali Cooperative
Two Separate Methodologies
In this research, two complementary methodologies were simultaneously conducted, one being in-depth
interview to a representative of each community, and the other being face-to-face questionnaire survey
to the people involved in the local CBET on-site. The first methodology aims to investigate the potential
update of the hypothesis presented earlier with representatives such as community coordinators or their
equivalents in a semi-structured style wherever they are available during our visits.
The second one is to validate the hypothesis quantitatively. We distributed questionnaires to actively
engaged CBET members, such as tour guides, tourist information staff, transport drivers, restaurant
workers, and housekeepers. We used a quantitative approach with a 5-point Likert scale to gather
valuable insights about their perspectives. For further details on the questionnaire content, refer to [Q.1]
to [Q.32] described in Figures. 2 to 10.
pág. 11693
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The interviews with community representatives revealed valuable insights into motivations, cooperative
characteristics, and CBET activities in five selected projects. We delve into the distinctive dynamics of
each project below, providing a deeper understanding through the coordinators' perspective.
Pueblos Mancomunados
Pueblos Mancomunados, a project comprising eight Zapotec communities, is a remarkable model of
regional development and CBET (Palomino et al., 2016, Rosas-Baños et al., 2016).
Benito Juárez, a pioneer in CBET activities since 1994, provides tourists with nature, adventure, and
rich social and cultural experiences. Coordinator Mr. Nelson Ceballos, highlights the project's
commitment to preserving nature and traditions by intertwining communal activities with responsible
tourism. As the project expands, Mr. Nelson plans to reinvest profits for service enhancements. Notably,
despite receiving government funding for cabin construction, the community autonomously managed
funds. They have been self-sufficient for over two decades and have received environmental
certifications.
La Nevería, the smallest town among Pueblos Mancomunados, is also in a strengthening phase.
Coordinator Engineer Gaudencio Yescas pointed to preventing migration and cultural loss as the
original motivation of the project. The main attractions and the infrastructure were carefully planned to
reduce environmental impact. He underscored the success of Pueblos Mancomunados, highlighting the
project's uniqueness rooted in preserved Zapotec traditions. This aligns with previous reports on the
influence that pre-existing experiences of collective organizing in rural communities have on the
success of CBET (Kieffer, 2019). We noted that this feeling is widespread. Therefore, community pride
comes from their cultural and historical roots as a Zapotec people and is reinforced by sharing CBET
responsibilities.
We also spoke with the general manager of Expediciones Sierra Norte, the tour operator owned by the
communities and led by Lic. Angelina Martínez Pérez. She shared insights into the project's foundation,
organization, cooperative structure, benefit distribution, activities, and statistics, affirming the
motivations stated by Eng. Gaudencio. The cooperative encourages community involvement through
rotating jobs (tequio), enhancing training and administrative capability. This structure ensures efficient
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The interviews with community representatives revealed valuable insights into motivations, cooperative
characteristics, and CBET activities in five selected projects. We delve into the distinctive dynamics of
each project below, providing a deeper understanding through the coordinators' perspective.
Pueblos Mancomunados
Pueblos Mancomunados, a project comprising eight Zapotec communities, is a remarkable model of
regional development and CBET (Palomino et al., 2016, Rosas-Baños et al., 2016).
Benito Juárez, a pioneer in CBET activities since 1994, provides tourists with nature, adventure, and
rich social and cultural experiences. Coordinator Mr. Nelson Ceballos, highlights the project's
commitment to preserving nature and traditions by intertwining communal activities with responsible
tourism. As the project expands, Mr. Nelson plans to reinvest profits for service enhancements. Notably,
despite receiving government funding for cabin construction, the community autonomously managed
funds. They have been self-sufficient for over two decades and have received environmental
certifications.
La Nevería, the smallest town among Pueblos Mancomunados, is also in a strengthening phase.
Coordinator Engineer Gaudencio Yescas pointed to preventing migration and cultural loss as the
original motivation of the project. The main attractions and the infrastructure were carefully planned to
reduce environmental impact. He underscored the success of Pueblos Mancomunados, highlighting the
project's uniqueness rooted in preserved Zapotec traditions. This aligns with previous reports on the
influence that pre-existing experiences of collective organizing in rural communities have on the
success of CBET (Kieffer, 2019). We noted that this feeling is widespread. Therefore, community pride
comes from their cultural and historical roots as a Zapotec people and is reinforced by sharing CBET
responsibilities.
We also spoke with the general manager of Expediciones Sierra Norte, the tour operator owned by the
communities and led by Lic. Angelina Martínez Pérez. She shared insights into the project's foundation,
organization, cooperative structure, benefit distribution, activities, and statistics, affirming the
motivations stated by Eng. Gaudencio. The cooperative encourages community involvement through
rotating jobs (tequio), enhancing training and administrative capability. This structure ensures efficient