FISHERY PRODUCTS, NUTRITIONAL VALUE,
EMERGING MICROBIOLOGICAL RISKS, AND
CHALLENGES IN FOOD SAFETY: A
LITERATURE REVIEW
PRODUCTOS PESQUEROS, VALOR NUTRICIONAL,
RIESGOS MICROBIOLÓGICOS EMERGENTES Y DESAFÍOS
EN LA SEGURIDAD ALIMENTARIA: UNA REVISIÓN DE
LA LITERATURA
Luz María Ibarra Velázquez
Universidad de Guadalajara, México
Ana Luisa Madriz Elisondo
Universidad de Guadalajara, México
J. Jesús Padilla Frausto
Universidad de Guadalajara, México
Salvador Reynaldo Cervantes Figueroa
Universidad de Guadalajara, México
Marco Antonio Cardona López
Universidad de Guadalajara, México
pág. 2054
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v10i3.24181
Fishery Products, Nutritional Value, Emerging Microbiological Risks, and
Challenges in Food Safety: A Literature Review
Luz María Ibarra Velázquez1
luz.ibarra@academicos.udg.mx
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8265-5630
Centro Universitario de la Ciénega
Departamento
Ana Luisa Madriz Elisondo
ana.madriz@academicos.udg.mx
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5260-9139
Centro Universitario de la Ciénega
Departamento de Ciencias Médicas y de la Vida
Universidad de Guadalajara
México
J. Jesús Padilla Frausto de Ciencias Médicas y
de la Vida
Universidad de Guadalajara
México
j.padilla@academicos.udg.mx
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3402-9146
Centro Universitario de la Ciénega
Departamento de Ciencias Médicas y de la Vida
Universidad de Guadalajara
México
Salvador Reynaldo Cervantes Figueroa
reynaldo.cervantes@academicos.udg.mx
https://orcid.org/0009-0008-0381-7995
Centro Universitario de la Ciénega
Departamento de Ciencias Médicas y de la Vida
Universidad de Guadalajara
México
Marco Antonio Cardona López
marco.cardona@academicos.udg.mx
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1120-0185
Centro Universitario de la Ciénega
Departamento de Ciencias Médicas y de la Vida
Universidad de Guadalajara
México
ABSTRACT
Fishery products represent a key source of essential nutrients and play a strategic role in global food
security, particularly in the context of increasing demand and the rapid expansion of aquaculture. This
review provides an integrated analysis of fish nutritional composition and the main challenges related
to food safety, with emphasis on emerging microbiological risks under current environmental changes.
Fish muscle is characterised by a high content of proteins of high biological value, long-chain omega-
3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (EPA and DHA), and essential micronutrients with high bioavailability.
However, these properties also increase susceptibility to microbiological and oxidative spoilage, posing
challenges for preservation and safety. Along the supply chain, fishery products are exposed to multiple
contamination sources, including environmental chemicals and microorganisms from aquatic
ecosystems and processing environments. Intrinsic factors such as pH and water activity, together with
extrinsic conditions like temperature and handling, significantly influence microbial growth. Emerging
pathogens such as Vibrio spp., alongside persistent pathogens including Listeria monocytogenes and
opportunistic species such as Aeromonas spp., are of increasing concern. Additionally, antimicrobial
resistance in aquatic environments represents a critical public health issue, highlighting the need for
integrated control strategies based on surveillance and advanced monitoring tools.
Keywords: fishery products, food safety, emerging pathogens, nutritional value, aquaculture
1 Autor principal
Correspondencia: marco.cardona@academicos.udg.mx
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v10i3.24181
Fishery Products, Nutritional Value, Emerging Microbiological Risks, and
Challenges in Food Safety: A Literature Review
Luz María Ibarra Velázquez1
luz.ibarra@academicos.udg.mx
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8265-5630
Centro Universitario de la Ciénega
Departamento
Ana Luisa Madriz Elisondo
ana.madriz@academicos.udg.mx
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5260-9139
Centro Universitario de la Ciénega
Departamento de Ciencias Médicas y de la Vida
Universidad de Guadalajara
México
J. Jesús Padilla Frausto de Ciencias Médicas y
de la Vida
Universidad de Guadalajara
México
j.padilla@academicos.udg.mx
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3402-9146
Centro Universitario de la Ciénega
Departamento de Ciencias Médicas y de la Vida
Universidad de Guadalajara
México
Salvador Reynaldo Cervantes Figueroa
reynaldo.cervantes@academicos.udg.mx
https://orcid.org/0009-0008-0381-7995
Centro Universitario de la Ciénega
Departamento de Ciencias Médicas y de la Vida
Universidad de Guadalajara
México
Marco Antonio Cardona López
marco.cardona@academicos.udg.mx
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1120-0185
Centro Universitario de la Ciénega
Departamento de Ciencias Médicas y de la Vida
Universidad de Guadalajara
México
ABSTRACT
Fishery products represent a key source of essential nutrients and play a strategic role in global food
security, particularly in the context of increasing demand and the rapid expansion of aquaculture. This
review provides an integrated analysis of fish nutritional composition and the main challenges related
to food safety, with emphasis on emerging microbiological risks under current environmental changes.
Fish muscle is characterised by a high content of proteins of high biological value, long-chain omega-
3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (EPA and DHA), and essential micronutrients with high bioavailability.
However, these properties also increase susceptibility to microbiological and oxidative spoilage, posing
challenges for preservation and safety. Along the supply chain, fishery products are exposed to multiple
contamination sources, including environmental chemicals and microorganisms from aquatic
ecosystems and processing environments. Intrinsic factors such as pH and water activity, together with
extrinsic conditions like temperature and handling, significantly influence microbial growth. Emerging
pathogens such as Vibrio spp., alongside persistent pathogens including Listeria monocytogenes and
opportunistic species such as Aeromonas spp., are of increasing concern. Additionally, antimicrobial
resistance in aquatic environments represents a critical public health issue, highlighting the need for
integrated control strategies based on surveillance and advanced monitoring tools.
Keywords: fishery products, food safety, emerging pathogens, nutritional value, aquaculture
1 Autor principal
Correspondencia: marco.cardona@academicos.udg.mx
pág. 2055
pág. 2056
Productos Pesqueros, Valor Nutricional, Riesgos Microbiológicos
Emergentes y Desafíos en la Seguridad Alimentaria: Una Revisión de la
Literatura
RESUMEN
Los productos pesqueros representan una fuente clave de nutrientes esenciales y desempeñan un papel
estratégico en la seguridad alimentaria mundial, especialmente en el contexto de la creciente demanda
y la rápida expansión de la acuicultura. Esta revisión ofrece un análisis integral de la composición
nutricional del pescado y los principales desafíos relacionados con la inocuidad alimentaria, con énfasis
en los riesgos microbiológicos emergentes en el marco de los cambios ambientales actuales. El músculo
de pescado se caracteriza por un alto contenido de proteínas de alto valor biológico, ácidos grasos
poliinsaturados omega-3 de cadena larga (EPA y DHA) y micronutrientes esenciales con alta
biodisponibilidad. Sin embargo, estas propiedades también aumentan la susceptibilidad al deterioro
microbiológico y oxidativo, lo que plantea desafíos para la conservación y la inocuidad. A lo largo de
la cadena de suministro, los productos pesqueros están expuestos a múltiples fuentes de contaminación,
incluyendo sustancias químicas ambientales y microorganismos de los ecosistemas acuáticos y los
entornos de procesamiento. Factores intrínsecos como el pH y la actividad del agua, junto con
condiciones extrínsecas como la temperatura y la manipulación, influyen significativamente en el
crecimiento microbiano. Los patógenos emergentes como Vibrio spp., junto con patógenos persistentes
como Listeria monocytogenes y especies oportunistas como Aeromonas spp., son motivo de creciente
preocupación. Además, la resistencia a los antimicrobianos en ambientes acuáticos representa un
problema crítico de salud pública, lo que subraya la necesidad de estrategias de control integradas
basadas en la vigilancia y herramientas de monitoreo avanzadas.
Palabras clave: productos pesqueros, inocuidad alimentaria, patógenos emergentes, valor nutricional,
acuicultura
Artículo recibido 25 marzo 2026
Aceptado para publicación: 25 abril 2026
Productos Pesqueros, Valor Nutricional, Riesgos Microbiológicos
Emergentes y Desafíos en la Seguridad Alimentaria: Una Revisión de la
Literatura
RESUMEN
Los productos pesqueros representan una fuente clave de nutrientes esenciales y desempeñan un papel
estratégico en la seguridad alimentaria mundial, especialmente en el contexto de la creciente demanda
y la rápida expansión de la acuicultura. Esta revisión ofrece un análisis integral de la composición
nutricional del pescado y los principales desafíos relacionados con la inocuidad alimentaria, con énfasis
en los riesgos microbiológicos emergentes en el marco de los cambios ambientales actuales. El músculo
de pescado se caracteriza por un alto contenido de proteínas de alto valor biológico, ácidos grasos
poliinsaturados omega-3 de cadena larga (EPA y DHA) y micronutrientes esenciales con alta
biodisponibilidad. Sin embargo, estas propiedades también aumentan la susceptibilidad al deterioro
microbiológico y oxidativo, lo que plantea desafíos para la conservación y la inocuidad. A lo largo de
la cadena de suministro, los productos pesqueros están expuestos a múltiples fuentes de contaminación,
incluyendo sustancias químicas ambientales y microorganismos de los ecosistemas acuáticos y los
entornos de procesamiento. Factores intrínsecos como el pH y la actividad del agua, junto con
condiciones extrínsecas como la temperatura y la manipulación, influyen significativamente en el
crecimiento microbiano. Los patógenos emergentes como Vibrio spp., junto con patógenos persistentes
como Listeria monocytogenes y especies oportunistas como Aeromonas spp., son motivo de creciente
preocupación. Además, la resistencia a los antimicrobianos en ambientes acuáticos representa un
problema crítico de salud pública, lo que subraya la necesidad de estrategias de control integradas
basadas en la vigilancia y herramientas de monitoreo avanzadas.
Palabras clave: productos pesqueros, inocuidad alimentaria, patógenos emergentes, valor nutricional,
acuicultura
Artículo recibido 25 marzo 2026
Aceptado para publicación: 25 abril 2026
pág. 2057
INTRODUCTION
Fishery products constitute a strategic component of global food security; however, their growing
relevance is not only driven by their nutritional value but also by profound transformations in food
production and consumption systems at a global scale. In 2016, approximately 35% of fishery
production was destined for international trade, and by 2022, total production reached 223.2 million
tonnes, with aquaculture increasingly dominating as the primary source of aquatic foods for human
consumption (FAO, 2018). This structural shift reflects not only an increase in supply but also a
transition towards more intensified food systems, with direct implications for the quality, sustainability,
and safety of fishery products.
The sustained increase in per capita consumption from 9.1 kg in 1961 to 20.7 kg in 2021, together with
projections of continued growth, highlights a reconfiguration of consumption patterns, in which foods
are valued not only for their energy contribution but also for their functional benefits (FAO, 2024). In
this context, fishery products stand out due to their content of high biological value proteins and long-
chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (EPA and DHA), which are associated with cardioprotective
and anti-inflammatory effects (Calder, 2017; Golden et al., 2021; Hicks et al., 2019). Nevertheless,
increasing demand and the diversification of production systems raise concerns regarding the
consistency of their nutritional quality and the implications associated with their intensification.
Concurrently, the high perishability of fish and the expansion of globalised supply chains have
increased the complexity of handling and preservation, generating new challenges in terms of sanitary
control (Mao & Lu, 2023). Within this scenario, anthropogenic environmental factors, particularly
climate change, have altered the dynamics of aquatic ecosystems, favouring the proliferation of
emerging pathogens and the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance. The geographical expansion of
bacteria of the genus Vibrio into previously non-endemic regions, together with the role of aquatic
systems as reservoirs of resistance genes, evidences a reconfiguration of microbiological risk in fishery
products (Baker-Austin et al., 2018; Cabello et al., 2016; Trinanes & Martinez-Urtaza, 2021).
Furthermore, the quality of water used in food production and processing has emerged as a critical
determinant of safety, particularly in intensive aquaculture systems, where the interaction between
environmental variables and production practices may amplify health risks (FAO, 2018).
INTRODUCTION
Fishery products constitute a strategic component of global food security; however, their growing
relevance is not only driven by their nutritional value but also by profound transformations in food
production and consumption systems at a global scale. In 2016, approximately 35% of fishery
production was destined for international trade, and by 2022, total production reached 223.2 million
tonnes, with aquaculture increasingly dominating as the primary source of aquatic foods for human
consumption (FAO, 2018). This structural shift reflects not only an increase in supply but also a
transition towards more intensified food systems, with direct implications for the quality, sustainability,
and safety of fishery products.
The sustained increase in per capita consumption from 9.1 kg in 1961 to 20.7 kg in 2021, together with
projections of continued growth, highlights a reconfiguration of consumption patterns, in which foods
are valued not only for their energy contribution but also for their functional benefits (FAO, 2024). In
this context, fishery products stand out due to their content of high biological value proteins and long-
chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (EPA and DHA), which are associated with cardioprotective
and anti-inflammatory effects (Calder, 2017; Golden et al., 2021; Hicks et al., 2019). Nevertheless,
increasing demand and the diversification of production systems raise concerns regarding the
consistency of their nutritional quality and the implications associated with their intensification.
Concurrently, the high perishability of fish and the expansion of globalised supply chains have
increased the complexity of handling and preservation, generating new challenges in terms of sanitary
control (Mao & Lu, 2023). Within this scenario, anthropogenic environmental factors, particularly
climate change, have altered the dynamics of aquatic ecosystems, favouring the proliferation of
emerging pathogens and the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance. The geographical expansion of
bacteria of the genus Vibrio into previously non-endemic regions, together with the role of aquatic
systems as reservoirs of resistance genes, evidences a reconfiguration of microbiological risk in fishery
products (Baker-Austin et al., 2018; Cabello et al., 2016; Trinanes & Martinez-Urtaza, 2021).
Furthermore, the quality of water used in food production and processing has emerged as a critical
determinant of safety, particularly in intensive aquaculture systems, where the interaction between
environmental variables and production practices may amplify health risks (FAO, 2018).
pág. 2058
In the European context, the increasing relevance of Vibrio as an emerging risk reinforces the need to
reassess traditional approaches to food safety evaluation (ECDC-EFSA, 2023).
Despite the extensive literature available on fishery production, nutritional value, and microbiological
risks, these aspects have often been addressed in a fragmented manner. This limitation is particularly
critical in the context of global environmental change, where the interaction between production,
nutritional, and sanitary factors becomes increasingly complex. Consequently, there is a need to adopt
integrative approaches that enable a holistic understanding of the challenges associated with fishery
products.
Within this framework, the present review aims to provide an integrated analysis of current production
trends, the nutritional value of fishery products, and emerging challenges in food safety, with particular
emphasis on microbiological risks and their potential impact on public health.
METHODOLOGY
The present study was conducted under a qualitative approach, with a descriptive, documentary design
based on a literature review, aimed at providing a comprehensive analysis of the available scientific
evidence on fishery products, their nutritional value, emerging microbiological risks, and the challenges
associated with food safety in the current context.
The study population consisted of scientific articles published in English and Spanish, primarily
between 2015 and 2025, retrieved from high-impact indexed databases, including Web of Science,
Scopus, PubMed, and ScienceDirect, complemented by Google Scholar. Priority was given to recent
publications from indexed journals in order to ensure the quality, relevance, and timeliness of the
information.
The search strategy employed terms such as: “fishery products”, “seafood safety”, “foodborne
pathogens”, “Vibrio spp.”, “Listeria monocytogenes”, “Aeromonas spp.”, “antimicrobial resistance”,
and “aquaculture”, as well as their Spanish equivalents. These terms were combined using Boolean
operators (AND, OR) to optimise the retrieval of relevant information.
Inclusion criteria
▪ Original research articles and review papers published in English or Spanish.
▪ Publications between 2015 and 2025.
In the European context, the increasing relevance of Vibrio as an emerging risk reinforces the need to
reassess traditional approaches to food safety evaluation (ECDC-EFSA, 2023).
Despite the extensive literature available on fishery production, nutritional value, and microbiological
risks, these aspects have often been addressed in a fragmented manner. This limitation is particularly
critical in the context of global environmental change, where the interaction between production,
nutritional, and sanitary factors becomes increasingly complex. Consequently, there is a need to adopt
integrative approaches that enable a holistic understanding of the challenges associated with fishery
products.
Within this framework, the present review aims to provide an integrated analysis of current production
trends, the nutritional value of fishery products, and emerging challenges in food safety, with particular
emphasis on microbiological risks and their potential impact on public health.
METHODOLOGY
The present study was conducted under a qualitative approach, with a descriptive, documentary design
based on a literature review, aimed at providing a comprehensive analysis of the available scientific
evidence on fishery products, their nutritional value, emerging microbiological risks, and the challenges
associated with food safety in the current context.
The study population consisted of scientific articles published in English and Spanish, primarily
between 2015 and 2025, retrieved from high-impact indexed databases, including Web of Science,
Scopus, PubMed, and ScienceDirect, complemented by Google Scholar. Priority was given to recent
publications from indexed journals in order to ensure the quality, relevance, and timeliness of the
information.
The search strategy employed terms such as: “fishery products”, “seafood safety”, “foodborne
pathogens”, “Vibrio spp.”, “Listeria monocytogenes”, “Aeromonas spp.”, “antimicrobial resistance”,
and “aquaculture”, as well as their Spanish equivalents. These terms were combined using Boolean
operators (AND, OR) to optimise the retrieval of relevant information.
Inclusion criteria
▪ Original research articles and review papers published in English or Spanish.
▪ Publications between 2015 and 2025.
pág. 2059
▪ Studies with full-text availability.
▪ Research indexed in recognised databases (Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, SciELO,
ScienceDirect).
▪ Studies with direct thematic relevance to the microbiology of fishery products, food safety,
emerging pathogens, or antimicrobial resistance.
Exclusion criteria
▪ Publications outside the established time frame.
▪ Documents without full-text access.
▪ Conference abstracts, letters to the editor, or opinion pieces lacking methodological support.
▪ Studies not directly addressing the core themes of the review.
The selection of studies was carried out through purposive (criterion-based) sampling, prioritising
scientific relevance, methodological quality, and contribution to the research topic. Subsequently, the
selected articles were critically analysed and organised into thematic categories, allowing for an
integrative synthesis of the evidence.
For data management and organisation, bibliographic management tools (EndNote) were used,
facilitating the storage, classification, and citation of the consulted sources.
Ethical considerations
This study was based on the review of scientific literature, adhering to the principles of academic
integrity, proper citation of sources, and plagiarism prevention. No human or animal subjects were
involved; therefore, ethical committee approval was not required.
Limitations
Among the main limitations is the potential exclusion of non-indexed literature and the methodological
heterogeneity of the analysed studies, which may affect the comparability of results. Nevertheless, high-
quality scientific evidence was prioritised to strengthen the validity of the analysis.
RESULTS
Nutritional Composition and Food Safety Considerations of Fishery Products
In the context of the sustained growth of aquaculture production and the global consumption of fishery
products described previously, it is essential to understand the composition of fish muscle not only from
▪ Studies with full-text availability.
▪ Research indexed in recognised databases (Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, SciELO,
ScienceDirect).
▪ Studies with direct thematic relevance to the microbiology of fishery products, food safety,
emerging pathogens, or antimicrobial resistance.
Exclusion criteria
▪ Publications outside the established time frame.
▪ Documents without full-text access.
▪ Conference abstracts, letters to the editor, or opinion pieces lacking methodological support.
▪ Studies not directly addressing the core themes of the review.
The selection of studies was carried out through purposive (criterion-based) sampling, prioritising
scientific relevance, methodological quality, and contribution to the research topic. Subsequently, the
selected articles were critically analysed and organised into thematic categories, allowing for an
integrative synthesis of the evidence.
For data management and organisation, bibliographic management tools (EndNote) were used,
facilitating the storage, classification, and citation of the consulted sources.
Ethical considerations
This study was based on the review of scientific literature, adhering to the principles of academic
integrity, proper citation of sources, and plagiarism prevention. No human or animal subjects were
involved; therefore, ethical committee approval was not required.
Limitations
Among the main limitations is the potential exclusion of non-indexed literature and the methodological
heterogeneity of the analysed studies, which may affect the comparability of results. Nevertheless, high-
quality scientific evidence was prioritised to strengthen the validity of the analysis.
RESULTS
Nutritional Composition and Food Safety Considerations of Fishery Products
In the context of the sustained growth of aquaculture production and the global consumption of fishery
products described previously, it is essential to understand the composition of fish muscle not only from
pág. 2060
a nutritional perspective, but also as a determining factor in its stability, quality, and safety throughout
the supply chain.
Fish, defined as the muscle tissue of fish intended for human consumption, exhibits a highly variable
chemical composition influenced by biological factors (species, age, sex), environmental factors
(habitat, temperature, seasonality), and production-related factors (farming systems and feeding
practices) (Fernandes, 2009; Fitri et al., 2022; Mohamed & El Lahamy, 2020). This variability is
particularly relevant in the current context of aquaculture expansion, where production conditions may
significantly alter the nutritional profile of the final product.
From a compositional standpoint, fish muscle is characterised by a high content of proteins of high
biological value, with a complete profile of essential amino acids, as well as by the presence of non-
protein nitrogenous compounds that contribute to its sensory and technological properties. In contrast,
the carbohydrate fraction is virtually absent, distinguishing this food matrix from other terrestrial
protein sources (Noreen et al., 2025).
Lipid content shows marked interspecific variability, ranging from lean species (<1%) to fatty species
(>20%), which directly impacts nutritional quality. In particular, fish represents one of the main dietary
sources of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), notably EPA and DHA
(Omidvar et al., 2024; Selamoglu & Naeem, 2023). These compounds play a central role in the
prevention of cardiovascular diseases, modulation of inflammatory responses, and neurological
development, which explains their increasing prominence in global nutritional recommendations
(Calder, 2018).
Table 1 presents the average composition of various fish species as a percentage of the edible portion,
together with the grams of omega-3 per 100 g of fillet. This variability has been widely documented in
recent studies assessing the proximate composition and nutritional quality of fish (Mao & Lu, 2023).
a nutritional perspective, but also as a determining factor in its stability, quality, and safety throughout
the supply chain.
Fish, defined as the muscle tissue of fish intended for human consumption, exhibits a highly variable
chemical composition influenced by biological factors (species, age, sex), environmental factors
(habitat, temperature, seasonality), and production-related factors (farming systems and feeding
practices) (Fernandes, 2009; Fitri et al., 2022; Mohamed & El Lahamy, 2020). This variability is
particularly relevant in the current context of aquaculture expansion, where production conditions may
significantly alter the nutritional profile of the final product.
From a compositional standpoint, fish muscle is characterised by a high content of proteins of high
biological value, with a complete profile of essential amino acids, as well as by the presence of non-
protein nitrogenous compounds that contribute to its sensory and technological properties. In contrast,
the carbohydrate fraction is virtually absent, distinguishing this food matrix from other terrestrial
protein sources (Noreen et al., 2025).
Lipid content shows marked interspecific variability, ranging from lean species (<1%) to fatty species
(>20%), which directly impacts nutritional quality. In particular, fish represents one of the main dietary
sources of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), notably EPA and DHA
(Omidvar et al., 2024; Selamoglu & Naeem, 2023). These compounds play a central role in the
prevention of cardiovascular diseases, modulation of inflammatory responses, and neurological
development, which explains their increasing prominence in global nutritional recommendations
(Calder, 2018).
Table 1 presents the average composition of various fish species as a percentage of the edible portion,
together with the grams of omega-3 per 100 g of fillet. This variability has been widely documented in
recent studies assessing the proximate composition and nutritional quality of fish (Mao & Lu, 2023).
pág. 2061
Table 1. Average composition of selected fish species as a percentage of the edible portion and omega-
3 content (g/100 g of fillet)
Species Moisture (%) Protein (%) Fat (%) Minerals (%) Omega-3 (g/100 g)
Salmon 66 20 14 1 0.79
Tuna 62 22 16 1.1 2.33
Cod 82 17 0.64 1.2 0.23
Source: (Omidvar et al., 2024)
Table 2 shows the average composition of fish muscle.
Component Typical
Range (%)
Description Reference
Moisture 60–80 Predominantly water; it influences
texture and preservation.
(Mohamed & El Lahamy,
2020)
Proteins 16–24 High biological value proteins,
essential for human nutrition
(Mohamed & El Lahamy,
2020)
Total lipids 0.5–20+ Depends on species, diet, and
habitat; source of omega-3 fatty
acids
(Mao & Lu, 2023;
Omidvar et al., 2024)
Ash 1.0–2.5 Total minerals present in the
muscle.
(Fitri et al., 2022;
Mohamed & El Lahamy,
2020)
Carbohydrates ~0 Virtually absent in fish flesh. (Mao & Lu, 2023;
Mohamed & El Lahamy,
2020)
Omega-3 fatty acids ω-
3 (EPA + DHA)
0.5–3.0* Bioactive compounds mainly
present in marine species.
(Omidvar et al., 2024;
Selamoglu & Naeem,
2023)
*Approximate values; may vary depending on species and analytical method
Additionally, fish muscle provides a wide range of essential micronutrients, including minerals such as
iron, phosphorus, selenium, and iodine, as well as fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and B-complex
vitamins. The high bioavailability of these nutrients reinforces the role of fish as a functional food
within the context of healthy diets (Kandyliari et al., 2020; Selamoglu & Naeem, 2023; Toppe et al.,
2007).
However, these same compositional characteristics, particularly their high water content and
unsaturated lipids, also render fish highly susceptible to microbiological and oxidative spoilage. In this
Table 1. Average composition of selected fish species as a percentage of the edible portion and omega-
3 content (g/100 g of fillet)
Species Moisture (%) Protein (%) Fat (%) Minerals (%) Omega-3 (g/100 g)
Salmon 66 20 14 1 0.79
Tuna 62 22 16 1.1 2.33
Cod 82 17 0.64 1.2 0.23
Source: (Omidvar et al., 2024)
Table 2 shows the average composition of fish muscle.
Component Typical
Range (%)
Description Reference
Moisture 60–80 Predominantly water; it influences
texture and preservation.
(Mohamed & El Lahamy,
2020)
Proteins 16–24 High biological value proteins,
essential for human nutrition
(Mohamed & El Lahamy,
2020)
Total lipids 0.5–20+ Depends on species, diet, and
habitat; source of omega-3 fatty
acids
(Mao & Lu, 2023;
Omidvar et al., 2024)
Ash 1.0–2.5 Total minerals present in the
muscle.
(Fitri et al., 2022;
Mohamed & El Lahamy,
2020)
Carbohydrates ~0 Virtually absent in fish flesh. (Mao & Lu, 2023;
Mohamed & El Lahamy,
2020)
Omega-3 fatty acids ω-
3 (EPA + DHA)
0.5–3.0* Bioactive compounds mainly
present in marine species.
(Omidvar et al., 2024;
Selamoglu & Naeem,
2023)
*Approximate values; may vary depending on species and analytical method
Additionally, fish muscle provides a wide range of essential micronutrients, including minerals such as
iron, phosphorus, selenium, and iodine, as well as fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and B-complex
vitamins. The high bioavailability of these nutrients reinforces the role of fish as a functional food
within the context of healthy diets (Kandyliari et al., 2020; Selamoglu & Naeem, 2023; Toppe et al.,
2007).
However, these same compositional characteristics, particularly their high water content and
unsaturated lipids, also render fish highly susceptible to microbiological and oxidative spoilage. In this
pág. 2062
regard, muscle composition not only determines its nutritional value but also its stability and associated
health risks.
Micronutrients present in fish muscle not only provide nutritional value but also actively participate in
key metabolic processes through synergistic interactions. Table 3 summarises the biological
functionality of minerals and vitamins, emphasising their role as enzymatic cofactors, metabolic
modulators, and essential components of antioxidant systems. This integrative perspective allows for a
better understanding of how these compounds contribute to physiological homeostasis and reinforces
the relevance of fish as a nutrient-dense food matrix (Kandyliari et al., 2020; Selamoglu & Naeem,
2023).
Table 3. Functionality and Synergy of Micronutrients in Fish Muscle
Category Key
Nutrient
Biological Function / Metabolic Impact Reference
Minerals Selenium
(Se)
Cofactor of glutathione peroxidase; protection against
oxidative stress
(Kandyliari et al.,
2020)
Iodine (I) Precursor of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4);
metabolic regulation
(Toppe et al., 2007)
Iron (Fe) Present as haem iron with high bioavailability for
haematopoiesis
(FAO, 2024)
Vitamins Vitamin D Calcium homeostasis and maintenance of bone
integrity
(Selamoglu &
Naeem, 2023)
Vitamin E Lipophilic antioxidant that prevents peroxidation of
long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs).
(Calder, 2017)
B-complex Essential coenzymes in cellular oxidative metabolism
(B1, B2, B3)
(Kandyliari et al.,
2020)
Sources and mechanisms of contamination along the fishery products supply chain
In the context of increasingly extensive and globalised supply chains, fishery products are exposed to
multiple sources of contamination that may compromise their safety. Contamination is defined as the
presence of biological, chemical, or physical agents at levels capable of affecting food safety or quality
(FAO, 2024).
Aquatic ecosystems act as recipients of contaminants of anthropogenic origin, including heavy metals,
microplastics, and persistent organic pollutants (POPs), which may bioaccumulate along the trophic
chain (Forster et al., 2023). This phenomenon is particularly relevant in high-trophic-level species,
where the risk of exposure for consumers is increased.
regard, muscle composition not only determines its nutritional value but also its stability and associated
health risks.
Micronutrients present in fish muscle not only provide nutritional value but also actively participate in
key metabolic processes through synergistic interactions. Table 3 summarises the biological
functionality of minerals and vitamins, emphasising their role as enzymatic cofactors, metabolic
modulators, and essential components of antioxidant systems. This integrative perspective allows for a
better understanding of how these compounds contribute to physiological homeostasis and reinforces
the relevance of fish as a nutrient-dense food matrix (Kandyliari et al., 2020; Selamoglu & Naeem,
2023).
Table 3. Functionality and Synergy of Micronutrients in Fish Muscle
Category Key
Nutrient
Biological Function / Metabolic Impact Reference
Minerals Selenium
(Se)
Cofactor of glutathione peroxidase; protection against
oxidative stress
(Kandyliari et al.,
2020)
Iodine (I) Precursor of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4);
metabolic regulation
(Toppe et al., 2007)
Iron (Fe) Present as haem iron with high bioavailability for
haematopoiesis
(FAO, 2024)
Vitamins Vitamin D Calcium homeostasis and maintenance of bone
integrity
(Selamoglu &
Naeem, 2023)
Vitamin E Lipophilic antioxidant that prevents peroxidation of
long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs).
(Calder, 2017)
B-complex Essential coenzymes in cellular oxidative metabolism
(B1, B2, B3)
(Kandyliari et al.,
2020)
Sources and mechanisms of contamination along the fishery products supply chain
In the context of increasingly extensive and globalised supply chains, fishery products are exposed to
multiple sources of contamination that may compromise their safety. Contamination is defined as the
presence of biological, chemical, or physical agents at levels capable of affecting food safety or quality
(FAO, 2024).
Aquatic ecosystems act as recipients of contaminants of anthropogenic origin, including heavy metals,
microplastics, and persistent organic pollutants (POPs), which may bioaccumulate along the trophic
chain (Forster et al., 2023). This phenomenon is particularly relevant in high-trophic-level species,
where the risk of exposure for consumers is increased.
pág. 2063
From a microbiological perspective, the microbial load of fishery products results from a complex
interaction between environmental and operational factors. Two main sources of contamination can be
distinguished:
Primary sources, associated with the aquatic environment and the organism itself;
Secondary sources, linked to processing stages, include ice, surfaces, equipment, and food handlers
(Soon et al., 2021).
Microbial growth is regulated by intrinsic factors of the muscle, such as pH, water activity (aw), and
redox potential, as well as by extrinsic factors, particularly storage temperature and atmospheric
conditions (Ramesh et al., 2023).
Although the internal muscle of fish is sterile under physiological conditions, external surfaces harbour
a diverse microbiota that reflects the conditions of the aquatic environment. The final microbial load
depends on variables such as geographical location, seasonality, capture method, and the efficiency of
the post-harvest cold chain (Bondad‐Reantaso et al., 2023; Selamoglu & Naeem, 2023).
Compliance with food safety standards established by international bodies such as the Codex
Alimentarius is imperative for the commercialisation of fishery products. As shown in Table 4, limits
for heavy metals and pathogens act as the final control barrier against the anthropogenic contamination
described. Monitoring these parameters, together with strict control of the intrinsic and extrinsic factors
of the muscle, ensures that the high nutritional value of fish is not compromised by chemical or
biological risks during processing (Forster et al., 2023; Ramesh et al., 2023).
Table 4. Maximum limits for heavy metals and pathogens
Contaminant Maximum Limit
(mg/Kg fresh weight)
Regulatory Body Reference
Mercury (Hg) 0.5 - 1.0* Codex Alimentarius (193-1995, 1995)
Cadmium (Cd) 0.05 - 0.25 EFSA / Codex (2023/915, 2023)
Lead (Pb) 0.3 Codex Alimentarius (193-1995, 1995)
Salmonella spp. Absences in 25 g ICMSF / Codex (21-1997, 1997; FDA, 2011)
Histamine < 100 - 200** FDA / EFSA (Food & Administration, 2011)
Note: *The limit of 1.0 mg/Kg applies to large predatory species (e.g., shark and swordfish).
**Histamine is a critical indicator of spoilage in scombroid species (e.g., tuna).
From a microbiological perspective, the microbial load of fishery products results from a complex
interaction between environmental and operational factors. Two main sources of contamination can be
distinguished:
Primary sources, associated with the aquatic environment and the organism itself;
Secondary sources, linked to processing stages, include ice, surfaces, equipment, and food handlers
(Soon et al., 2021).
Microbial growth is regulated by intrinsic factors of the muscle, such as pH, water activity (aw), and
redox potential, as well as by extrinsic factors, particularly storage temperature and atmospheric
conditions (Ramesh et al., 2023).
Although the internal muscle of fish is sterile under physiological conditions, external surfaces harbour
a diverse microbiota that reflects the conditions of the aquatic environment. The final microbial load
depends on variables such as geographical location, seasonality, capture method, and the efficiency of
the post-harvest cold chain (Bondad‐Reantaso et al., 2023; Selamoglu & Naeem, 2023).
Compliance with food safety standards established by international bodies such as the Codex
Alimentarius is imperative for the commercialisation of fishery products. As shown in Table 4, limits
for heavy metals and pathogens act as the final control barrier against the anthropogenic contamination
described. Monitoring these parameters, together with strict control of the intrinsic and extrinsic factors
of the muscle, ensures that the high nutritional value of fish is not compromised by chemical or
biological risks during processing (Forster et al., 2023; Ramesh et al., 2023).
Table 4. Maximum limits for heavy metals and pathogens
Contaminant Maximum Limit
(mg/Kg fresh weight)
Regulatory Body Reference
Mercury (Hg) 0.5 - 1.0* Codex Alimentarius (193-1995, 1995)
Cadmium (Cd) 0.05 - 0.25 EFSA / Codex (2023/915, 2023)
Lead (Pb) 0.3 Codex Alimentarius (193-1995, 1995)
Salmonella spp. Absences in 25 g ICMSF / Codex (21-1997, 1997; FDA, 2011)
Histamine < 100 - 200** FDA / EFSA (Food & Administration, 2011)
Note: *The limit of 1.0 mg/Kg applies to large predatory species (e.g., shark and swordfish).
**Histamine is a critical indicator of spoilage in scombroid species (e.g., tuna).
pág. 2064
Emerging Pathogens and Antimicrobial Resistance
Fishery products may harbour a wide diversity of microorganisms; however, in recent years, increasing
attention has been directed towards bacterial pathogens whose public health relevance has intensified
as a consequence of climate change, globalised trade, and the rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
Unlike pathogens associated with terrestrial foods, many microorganisms present in marine products
are native to aquatic ecosystems; therefore, their abundance, distribution, and pathogenic potential are
closely dependent on environmental variables, particularly temperature and salinity, which are currently
being altered by climate change (Baker-Austin et al., 2018; FAO-WHO, 2019; Trinanes & Martinez-
Urtaza, 2021).
In this context, the genus Vibrio represents one of the principal emerging pathogens of public health
concern. Species such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio vulnificus, and Vibrio cholerae are frequently
associated with fishery products and exhibit high sensitivity to environmental fluctuations. Rising sea
surface temperatures have promoted their proliferation and geographical expansion into previously non-
endemic regions, thereby increasing the risk of infection associated with the consumption of seafood
(Baker-Austin et al., 2018; EFSA, 2024). In addition, an increase in multidrug resistance among Vibrio
spp. to clinically relevant antimicrobials has been documented, reinforcing their significance as
emerging pathogens in aquatic ecosystems.
In contrast, Listeria monocytogenes represents a predominantly post-harvest risk due to its ability to
persist in industrial environments, form biofilms, and adapt to refrigeration conditions. These
characteristics favour its persistence in processing facilities and explain its recurrence in ready-to-eat
fishery products. The identification of persistent clonal lineages of Listeria monocytogenes, such as
sequence type ST155 (serogroup IIa), implicated in prolonged outbreaks in Europe, highlights the
critical role of genomic surveillance in tracking the persistence and dissemination of this pathogen
within the food chain (ECDC-EFSA, 2023; Kandyliari et al., 2020).
The genus Aeromonas, in turn, has emerged as a relevant opportunistic pathogen in fishery products
and aquaculture systems. Its importance lies in its frequent isolation from fresh fish and its capacity to
express virulence factors, form biofilms, and develop resistance to multiple antimicrobials.
Emerging Pathogens and Antimicrobial Resistance
Fishery products may harbour a wide diversity of microorganisms; however, in recent years, increasing
attention has been directed towards bacterial pathogens whose public health relevance has intensified
as a consequence of climate change, globalised trade, and the rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
Unlike pathogens associated with terrestrial foods, many microorganisms present in marine products
are native to aquatic ecosystems; therefore, their abundance, distribution, and pathogenic potential are
closely dependent on environmental variables, particularly temperature and salinity, which are currently
being altered by climate change (Baker-Austin et al., 2018; FAO-WHO, 2019; Trinanes & Martinez-
Urtaza, 2021).
In this context, the genus Vibrio represents one of the principal emerging pathogens of public health
concern. Species such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio vulnificus, and Vibrio cholerae are frequently
associated with fishery products and exhibit high sensitivity to environmental fluctuations. Rising sea
surface temperatures have promoted their proliferation and geographical expansion into previously non-
endemic regions, thereby increasing the risk of infection associated with the consumption of seafood
(Baker-Austin et al., 2018; EFSA, 2024). In addition, an increase in multidrug resistance among Vibrio
spp. to clinically relevant antimicrobials has been documented, reinforcing their significance as
emerging pathogens in aquatic ecosystems.
In contrast, Listeria monocytogenes represents a predominantly post-harvest risk due to its ability to
persist in industrial environments, form biofilms, and adapt to refrigeration conditions. These
characteristics favour its persistence in processing facilities and explain its recurrence in ready-to-eat
fishery products. The identification of persistent clonal lineages of Listeria monocytogenes, such as
sequence type ST155 (serogroup IIa), implicated in prolonged outbreaks in Europe, highlights the
critical role of genomic surveillance in tracking the persistence and dissemination of this pathogen
within the food chain (ECDC-EFSA, 2023; Kandyliari et al., 2020).
The genus Aeromonas, in turn, has emerged as a relevant opportunistic pathogen in fishery products
and aquaculture systems. Its importance lies in its frequent isolation from fresh fish and its capacity to
express virulence factors, form biofilms, and develop resistance to multiple antimicrobials.
pág. 2065
Species such as Aeromonas hydrophila, Aeromonas caviae, and Aeromonas veronii have been widely
recognised for their pathogenic potential in humans (Fernández-Bravo & Figueras, 2020). Unlike Vibrio
and Listeria, Aeromonas spp. occupies an intermediate position within the production chain, being
associated with both aquatic ecosystems and intensive production systems.
In this scenario, antimicrobial resistance acts as a cross-cutting factor that amplifies the complexity of
microbiological risk in fishery products. Selective pressure resulting from the use of antimicrobials in
aquaculture, together with the discharge of anthropogenic effluents, promotes the emergence and
dissemination of multidrug-resistant bacteria in aquatic ecosystems. These environments function as
reservoirs of resistance genes, facilitating horizontal gene transfer and limiting available therapeutic
options (Cabello et al., 2016; EFSA, 2024).
Overall, the evidence indicates that microbiological risks in fishery products exhibit a differentiated
epidemiological organisation, involving environmental, industrial, and anthropogenic factors. While
Vibrio spp. is primarily associated with pre-harvest conditions influenced by the environment, Listeria
monocytogenes predominates in post-harvest stages due to its persistence in processing environments,
and Aeromonas spp. occupies an intermediate position linked to both aquatic environments and
intensive aquaculture. The convergence of these pathogens, together with AMR, underscores the need
to implement integrated surveillance strategies that include environmental monitoring, genomic
sequencing, and predictive risk models.
The risk analysis presented in Figure 1 highlights a dichotomy in the food safety of fishery products:
while the risk posed by Vibrio spp. is strongly influenced by pre-harvest and environmental factors
(climate change), the threat from L. monocytogenes is predominantly post-harvest, linked to genomic
persistence in industrial settings.
The convergence of antibiotic multiresistance in both genera complicates the clinical outlook, requiring
a shift from conventional surveillance methods towards genomic sequencing approaches and predictive
environmental monitoring.
Species such as Aeromonas hydrophila, Aeromonas caviae, and Aeromonas veronii have been widely
recognised for their pathogenic potential in humans (Fernández-Bravo & Figueras, 2020). Unlike Vibrio
and Listeria, Aeromonas spp. occupies an intermediate position within the production chain, being
associated with both aquatic ecosystems and intensive production systems.
In this scenario, antimicrobial resistance acts as a cross-cutting factor that amplifies the complexity of
microbiological risk in fishery products. Selective pressure resulting from the use of antimicrobials in
aquaculture, together with the discharge of anthropogenic effluents, promotes the emergence and
dissemination of multidrug-resistant bacteria in aquatic ecosystems. These environments function as
reservoirs of resistance genes, facilitating horizontal gene transfer and limiting available therapeutic
options (Cabello et al., 2016; EFSA, 2024).
Overall, the evidence indicates that microbiological risks in fishery products exhibit a differentiated
epidemiological organisation, involving environmental, industrial, and anthropogenic factors. While
Vibrio spp. is primarily associated with pre-harvest conditions influenced by the environment, Listeria
monocytogenes predominates in post-harvest stages due to its persistence in processing environments,
and Aeromonas spp. occupies an intermediate position linked to both aquatic environments and
intensive aquaculture. The convergence of these pathogens, together with AMR, underscores the need
to implement integrated surveillance strategies that include environmental monitoring, genomic
sequencing, and predictive risk models.
The risk analysis presented in Figure 1 highlights a dichotomy in the food safety of fishery products:
while the risk posed by Vibrio spp. is strongly influenced by pre-harvest and environmental factors
(climate change), the threat from L. monocytogenes is predominantly post-harvest, linked to genomic
persistence in industrial settings.
The convergence of antibiotic multiresistance in both genera complicates the clinical outlook, requiring
a shift from conventional surveillance methods towards genomic sequencing approaches and predictive
environmental monitoring.
pág. 2066
pág. 2067
Knowledge Gaps, Challenges and Future Research Directions
Fishery products are positioned at the intersection of nutrition, food safety, and environmental change;
however, the available knowledge remains fragmented. The lack of integrative approaches limits
understanding of how environmental conditions, production intensification, and post-harvest handling
jointly influence nutritional quality and health risks.
One of the main knowledge gaps concerns the impact of climate change on aquatic pathogens. Although
the expansion of Vibrio spp. has been documented, uncertainty persists regarding the influence of
variables such as temperature and salinity on their dynamics, hindering the development of reliable
predictive models.
Similarly, antimicrobial resistance in aquatic ecosystems represents a critical challenge. While
aquaculture is recognised as a potential reservoir of resistance genes, the mechanisms underlying their
persistence and transfer are not yet fully understood, requiring multidisciplinary approaches within the
“One Health” framework.
From a nutritional perspective, further research is needed to better understand how production systems
affect the biochemical composition of fish. Variability in fatty acids and micronutrients raises questions
regarding the consistency of the health benefits associated with fish consumption.
In this context, future research should focus on the development of integrated predictive models, the
application of omics-based tools for pathogen detection and antimicrobial resistance characterisation,
and the implementation of innovative preservation technologies.
CONCLUSIONS
The evidence reviewed demonstrates that microbiological hazards in fishery products arise from a
dynamic interaction between environmental conditions, production practices, and post-harvest
handling. Emerging pathogens such as Vibrio spp., whose proliferation is closely linked to climate
change and ocean warming, coexist with persistent contaminants such as Listeria monocytogenes,
associated with processing environments and ready-to-eat products, and opportunistic bacteria such as
Aeromonas spp., which occupy an intermediate ecological niche between aquatic systems and
aquaculture.
Knowledge Gaps, Challenges and Future Research Directions
Fishery products are positioned at the intersection of nutrition, food safety, and environmental change;
however, the available knowledge remains fragmented. The lack of integrative approaches limits
understanding of how environmental conditions, production intensification, and post-harvest handling
jointly influence nutritional quality and health risks.
One of the main knowledge gaps concerns the impact of climate change on aquatic pathogens. Although
the expansion of Vibrio spp. has been documented, uncertainty persists regarding the influence of
variables such as temperature and salinity on their dynamics, hindering the development of reliable
predictive models.
Similarly, antimicrobial resistance in aquatic ecosystems represents a critical challenge. While
aquaculture is recognised as a potential reservoir of resistance genes, the mechanisms underlying their
persistence and transfer are not yet fully understood, requiring multidisciplinary approaches within the
“One Health” framework.
From a nutritional perspective, further research is needed to better understand how production systems
affect the biochemical composition of fish. Variability in fatty acids and micronutrients raises questions
regarding the consistency of the health benefits associated with fish consumption.
In this context, future research should focus on the development of integrated predictive models, the
application of omics-based tools for pathogen detection and antimicrobial resistance characterisation,
and the implementation of innovative preservation technologies.
CONCLUSIONS
The evidence reviewed demonstrates that microbiological hazards in fishery products arise from a
dynamic interaction between environmental conditions, production practices, and post-harvest
handling. Emerging pathogens such as Vibrio spp., whose proliferation is closely linked to climate
change and ocean warming, coexist with persistent contaminants such as Listeria monocytogenes,
associated with processing environments and ready-to-eat products, and opportunistic bacteria such as
Aeromonas spp., which occupy an intermediate ecological niche between aquatic systems and
aquaculture.
pág. 2068
In addition, antimicrobial resistance represents a critical cross-cutting challenge, as aquatic ecosystems
act as reservoirs and transmission pathways for resistance genes, complicating risk management and
therapeutic interventions. Addressing these challenges requires moving beyond conventional,
fragmented approaches toward integrated and preventive strategies. Strengthening environmental
monitoring, ensuring strict hygienic practices, maintaining cold-chain integrity, and incorporating
advanced tools such as genomic surveillance and predictive modeling are essential to mitigate risks
effectively and sustainably. Ultimately, ensuring the safety and quality of fishery products demands a
systemic perspective under the One Health framework, integrating environmental sustainability, food
safety, and public health to support resilient and safe aquatic food systems globally.
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http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/915/oj
Baker-Austin, C., Oliver, J. D., Alam, M., Ali, A., Waldor, M. K., Qadri, F., & Martinez-Urtaza, J.
(2018). Vibrio spp. infections. Nature reviews Disease primers, 4(1), 1-19.
Bondad‐Reantaso, M. G., MacKinnon, B., Karunasagar, I., Fridman, S., Alday‐Sanz, V., Brun, E., Le
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Cabello, F. C., Godfrey, H. P., Buschmann, A. H., & Dölz, H. J. (2016). Aquaculture as yet another
environmental gateway to the development and globalisation of antimicrobial resistance. The
Lancet Infectious Diseases, 16(7), e127-e133.
In addition, antimicrobial resistance represents a critical cross-cutting challenge, as aquatic ecosystems
act as reservoirs and transmission pathways for resistance genes, complicating risk management and
therapeutic interventions. Addressing these challenges requires moving beyond conventional,
fragmented approaches toward integrated and preventive strategies. Strengthening environmental
monitoring, ensuring strict hygienic practices, maintaining cold-chain integrity, and incorporating
advanced tools such as genomic surveillance and predictive modeling are essential to mitigate risks
effectively and sustainably. Ultimately, ensuring the safety and quality of fishery products demands a
systemic perspective under the One Health framework, integrating environmental sustainability, food
safety, and public health to support resilient and safe aquatic food systems globally.
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%252FStandards%252FCXG%2B21-1997%252FCXG_021e.pdf
Codex general standard for contaminants and toxins in food and feed, (1995).
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Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 of 25 April 2023 on maximum levels for certain contaminants
in food and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 (Text with EEA relevance), 119 (2023).
http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/915/oj
Baker-Austin, C., Oliver, J. D., Alam, M., Ali, A., Waldor, M. K., Qadri, F., & Martinez-Urtaza, J.
(2018). Vibrio spp. infections. Nature reviews Disease primers, 4(1), 1-19.
Bondad‐Reantaso, M. G., MacKinnon, B., Karunasagar, I., Fridman, S., Alday‐Sanz, V., Brun, E., Le
Groumellec, M., Li, A., Surachetpong, W., & Karunasagar, I. (2023). Review of alternatives to
antibiotic use in aquaculture. Reviews in Aquaculture, 15(4), 1421-1451.
Cabello, F. C., Godfrey, H. P., Buschmann, A. H., & Dölz, H. J. (2016). Aquaculture as yet another
environmental gateway to the development and globalisation of antimicrobial resistance. The
Lancet Infectious Diseases, 16(7), e127-e133.
pág. 2069
Calder, P. C. (2017). Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: from molecules to man.
Biochemical Society Transactions, 45(5), 1105-1115.
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Biochemical Society Transactions, 45(5), 1105-1115.
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Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 77(1), 52-72.
ECDC-EFSA. (2023). Prolonged multi-country cluster of Listeria monocytogenes ST155 infections
linked to ready-to-eat fish products. ASSESSMENT, JOINT ECDC-EFSA RAPID
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https://doi.org/https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/ca0190en
FAO. (2024). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2024. Blue Transformation in action.
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Microbiological Risk Assessment Series 33, Rome.
FDA. (2011). Fish and fishery products hazards and controls guidance.
Fernandes, R. (2009). Microbiology handbook: fish and seafood. Royal Society of Chemistry London
(UK).
Fernández-Bravo, A., & Figueras, M. J. (2020). An Update on the Genus Aeromonas: Taxonomy,
Epidemiology, and Pathogenicity. Microorganisms, 8(1), 129. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-
2607/8/1/129
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Lazaldin, M. A., Low, C. F., & Hamezah, H. S. (2022). A comprehensive review on the
processing of dried fish and the associated chemical and nutritional changes. Foods, 11(19),
2938.
pág. 2070
Forster, P. M., Smith, C. J., Walsh, T., Lamb, W. F., Lamboll, R., Hauser, M., Ribes, A., Rosen, D.,
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Kandyliari, A., Mallouchos, A., Papandroulakis, N., Golla, J. P., Lam, T. T., Sakellari, A., Karavoltsos,
S., Vasiliou, V., & Kapsokefalou, M. (2020). Nutrient composition and fatty acid and protein
profiles of selected fish by-products. Foods, 9(2), 190.
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Fish. Journal of Current Research in Food Science, 1(2), 27-31.
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products—a nutritional and functional perspective [Review]. Frontiers in Nutrition, Volume 12
- 2025. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2025.1564315
Omidvar, R., Sipos, M., & Farzad, R. (2024). Fish Fillet: White Versus Red, Structure and Nutritional
Composition: FSHN23-4/FS454, 01/2024. EDIS, 2024(1).
Ramesh, V., Hariharan, P., Akshay, V., Choksi, P., Khanwilkar, S., DeFries, R., & Robin, V. (2023).
Using passive acoustic monitoring to examine the impacts of ecological restoration on faunal
biodiversity in the Western Ghats. Biological conservation, 282, 110071.
Selamoglu, Z., & Naeem, M. (2023). Fish as a significant source of nutrients. J Pub Health Nutri. , 6(4),
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pág. 2071
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Soon, J. M., Vanany, I., Wahab, I. R. A., Hamdan, R. H., & Jamaludin, M. H. (2021). Food safety and
evaluation of intention to practice safe eating out measures during COVID-19: Cross-sectional
study in Indonesia and Malaysia. Food Control, 125, 107920.
Toppe, J., Albrektsen, S., Hope, B., & Aksnes, A. (2007). Chemical composition, mineral content and
amino acid and lipid profiles in bones from various fish species. Comparative Biochemistry
and Physiology Part B: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 146(3), 395-401.
Trinanes, J., & Martinez-Urtaza, J. (2021). Future scenarios of risk of Vibrio infections in a warming
planet: a global mapping study. The Lancet Planetary Health, 5(7), e426-e435.