pág. 2616
A THEORETICAL BIBLIOGRAPHIC REVIEW
FROM THE PRACTICUM EXPERIENCE OF
READING APPREHENSION AMONG HIGH
SCHOOL STUDENTS IN ENGLISH CLASSES.
UNA REVISION BIBLIOGRAFICA DESDE LA EXPERIENCIA
PRACTICA DE LA APRENSION A LA LECTURA EN
ESTUDIANTES DE BACHILLERATO EN CLASES DE INGLÉS
Sheyla Sileny Palma Macías
Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí
Laura María Mena Sánchez
Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí
pág. 2617
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v10i4.25291
A theoretical Bibliographic review from the practicum experience of reading
apprehension among high school students in English classes.
Sheyla Sileny Palma Macías1
e1350852230@live.uleam.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-7626-3818
Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí
Ecuador
Laura María Mena Sánchez
laura.mena@uleam.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5287-2837
Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí
Ecuador
ABSTRACT
This theoretical bibliographic review examines reading apprehension in Ecuadorian Basic General
Education (B.G.E.) English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) settings. In this study, reading apprehension
is used as a pedagogical label for avoidance, frustration, boredom, and low willingness to engage with
reading; it is not treated as a standardized clinical construct or as interchangeable with reading anxiety.
A corpus of 25 peer-reviewed publications was selected from 214 initially identified records. The
synthesis addresses antecedents, learning consequences, and pedagogical responses. Evidence supports
a contextual model in which learner beliefs, text demands, instructional climate, and prior literacy
experiences interact. The strongest practical implication is not a universal remedy but the design of
supported, meaningful, and choice-aware reading experiences. Because no reviewed study directly tests
the proposed model in Ecuadorian B.G.E. classrooms, the article presents theoretical propositions rather
than testable hypotheses. The review contributes a structured synthesis of current evidence and a
context-sensitive agenda for teacher preparation and future Ecuadorian research.
Keywords: reading apprehension; EFL; reading motivation; reading anxiety; reading strategies;
Ecuador.
1 Autor principal
Correspondencia: e1350852230@live.uleam.edu.ec
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v10i4.25291
A theoretical Bibliographic review from the practicum experience of reading
apprehension among high school students in English classes.
Sheyla Sileny Palma Macías1
e1350852230@live.uleam.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-7626-3818
Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí
Ecuador
Laura María Mena Sánchez
laura.mena@uleam.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5287-2837
Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí
Ecuador
ABSTRACT
This theoretical bibliographic review examines reading apprehension in Ecuadorian Basic General
Education (B.G.E.) English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) settings. In this study, reading apprehension
is used as a pedagogical label for avoidance, frustration, boredom, and low willingness to engage with
reading; it is not treated as a standardized clinical construct or as interchangeable with reading anxiety.
A corpus of 25 peer-reviewed publications was selected from 214 initially identified records. The
synthesis addresses antecedents, learning consequences, and pedagogical responses. Evidence supports
a contextual model in which learner beliefs, text demands, instructional climate, and prior literacy
experiences interact. The strongest practical implication is not a universal remedy but the design of
supported, meaningful, and choice-aware reading experiences. Because no reviewed study directly tests
the proposed model in Ecuadorian B.G.E. classrooms, the article presents theoretical propositions rather
than testable hypotheses. The review contributes a structured synthesis of current evidence and a
context-sensitive agenda for teacher preparation and future Ecuadorian research.
Keywords: reading apprehension; EFL; reading motivation; reading anxiety; reading strategies;
Ecuador.
1 Autor principal
Correspondencia: e1350852230@live.uleam.edu.ec
pág. 2618
Una revision bibliografica desde la experiencia practica de la aprension a la
lectura en estudiantes de bachillerato en clases de inglés
RESUMEN
Esta revisión bibliográfica teórica examina la aprehensión lectora en contextos de inglés como lengua
extranjera (ILE) de Educación General Básica (EGB) en Ecuador. En este estudio, la aprehensión lectora
se emplea como una etiqueta pedagógica para la evitación, frustración, aburrimiento y baja disposición
a involucrarse con la lectura; no se presenta como un constructo clínico estandarizado ni como sinónimo
de ansiedad lectora. Se seleccionó un corpus de 25 publicaciones arbitradas a partir de 214 registros
inicialmente identificados. La síntesis aborda antecedentes, consecuencias para el aprendizaje y
respuestas pedagógicas. La evidencia respalda un modelo contextual donde interactúan las creencias del
estudiante, las exigencias del texto, el clima instruccional y las experiencias previas de alfabetización.
Dado que ningún estudio revisado prueba directamente el modelo en aulas ecuatorianas de EGB, el
artículo formula proposiciones teóricas y no hipótesis comprobables. La contribución del estudio
consiste en una síntesis estructurada de la evidencia actual y una agenda de investigación y formación
docente situada en Ecuador.
Palabras clave: aprehensión lectora; ILE; motivación lectora; ansiedad lectora; estrategias de lectura;
Ecuador.
Artículo recibido 20 mayo 2026
Aceptado para publicación: 20 junio 2026
Una revision bibliografica desde la experiencia practica de la aprension a la
lectura en estudiantes de bachillerato en clases de inglés
RESUMEN
Esta revisión bibliográfica teórica examina la aprehensión lectora en contextos de inglés como lengua
extranjera (ILE) de Educación General Básica (EGB) en Ecuador. En este estudio, la aprehensión lectora
se emplea como una etiqueta pedagógica para la evitación, frustración, aburrimiento y baja disposición
a involucrarse con la lectura; no se presenta como un constructo clínico estandarizado ni como sinónimo
de ansiedad lectora. Se seleccionó un corpus de 25 publicaciones arbitradas a partir de 214 registros
inicialmente identificados. La síntesis aborda antecedentes, consecuencias para el aprendizaje y
respuestas pedagógicas. La evidencia respalda un modelo contextual donde interactúan las creencias del
estudiante, las exigencias del texto, el clima instruccional y las experiencias previas de alfabetización.
Dado que ningún estudio revisado prueba directamente el modelo en aulas ecuatorianas de EGB, el
artículo formula proposiciones teóricas y no hipótesis comprobables. La contribución del estudio
consiste en una síntesis estructurada de la evidencia actual y una agenda de investigación y formación
docente situada en Ecuador.
Palabras clave: aprehensión lectora; ILE; motivación lectora; ansiedad lectora; estrategias de lectura;
Ecuador.
Artículo recibido 20 mayo 2026
Aceptado para publicación: 20 junio 2026
pág. 2619
1. INTRODUCTION
Reading is an essential route to linguistic input and academic participation in EFL classrooms. Yet,
students may approach reading tasks with avoidance, boredom, low confidence, or frustration. This
article uses the term reading apprehension to name that classroom-relevant pattern. The term is
deliberately narrower than a diagnostic label and broader than reading anxiety. Reading anxiety refers
to a related affective response often measured with specific instruments; apprehension here describes a
pedagogical problem that can include avoidance and low engagement without assuming a medical
condition (Mardianti et al., 2021; Miao & Vibulphol, 2021).
The distinction matters. Treating all disengagement as anxiety can lead to unsupported causal claims,
whereas treating it only as misconduct can obscure genuine barriers. Evidence across EFL and general
reading contexts indicates that motivation, self-efficacy, vocabulary demands, strategy use, teacher
support, and prior literacy experiences are associated with reading engagement and achievement (Li &
Gan, 2022; Toste et al., 2020; Zhang & Kim, 2025). These findings do not establish a single mechanism
for Ecuador, but they justify a careful, context-sensitive synthesis.
In Ecuador, the national EFL curriculum positions reading as a core communicative skill across
compulsory schooling (Ministerio de Educación, 2016). Recent Ecuadorian evidence addresses general
EFL motivation and reading comprehension, but not reading apprehension as operationalized in this
review. Andrade-Molina et al. (2022) examined motivated behavior among 128 high-school learners,
Díaz Chávez et al. (2023) studied reading-comprehension instruction with tenth-grade students in Loja,
and Soto et al. (2025) mapped motivation research nationally. Together, these sources show that relevant
local work exists while confirming that the precise intersection of reading avoidance, affect, and EFL
engagement remains underexamined.
1.1 Research Gap
The gap is not simply the absence of a label. The reviewed sources address reading anxiety, motivation,
self-efficacy, strategies, and engagement, but no retained study directly tests their interaction in
Ecuadorian B.G.E. EFL classrooms. Ecuadorian research documents broader motivational patterns and
a limited set of reading interventions (Andrade-Molina et al., 2022; Díaz Chávez et al., 2023; Soto et
al., 2025), yet it does not establish the prevalence, causes, or developmental course of reading
1. INTRODUCTION
Reading is an essential route to linguistic input and academic participation in EFL classrooms. Yet,
students may approach reading tasks with avoidance, boredom, low confidence, or frustration. This
article uses the term reading apprehension to name that classroom-relevant pattern. The term is
deliberately narrower than a diagnostic label and broader than reading anxiety. Reading anxiety refers
to a related affective response often measured with specific instruments; apprehension here describes a
pedagogical problem that can include avoidance and low engagement without assuming a medical
condition (Mardianti et al., 2021; Miao & Vibulphol, 2021).
The distinction matters. Treating all disengagement as anxiety can lead to unsupported causal claims,
whereas treating it only as misconduct can obscure genuine barriers. Evidence across EFL and general
reading contexts indicates that motivation, self-efficacy, vocabulary demands, strategy use, teacher
support, and prior literacy experiences are associated with reading engagement and achievement (Li &
Gan, 2022; Toste et al., 2020; Zhang & Kim, 2025). These findings do not establish a single mechanism
for Ecuador, but they justify a careful, context-sensitive synthesis.
In Ecuador, the national EFL curriculum positions reading as a core communicative skill across
compulsory schooling (Ministerio de Educación, 2016). Recent Ecuadorian evidence addresses general
EFL motivation and reading comprehension, but not reading apprehension as operationalized in this
review. Andrade-Molina et al. (2022) examined motivated behavior among 128 high-school learners,
Díaz Chávez et al. (2023) studied reading-comprehension instruction with tenth-grade students in Loja,
and Soto et al. (2025) mapped motivation research nationally. Together, these sources show that relevant
local work exists while confirming that the precise intersection of reading avoidance, affect, and EFL
engagement remains underexamined.
1.1 Research Gap
The gap is not simply the absence of a label. The reviewed sources address reading anxiety, motivation,
self-efficacy, strategies, and engagement, but no retained study directly tests their interaction in
Ecuadorian B.G.E. EFL classrooms. Ecuadorian research documents broader motivational patterns and
a limited set of reading interventions (Andrade-Molina et al., 2022; Díaz Chávez et al., 2023; Soto et
al., 2025), yet it does not establish the prevalence, causes, or developmental course of reading
pág. 2620
apprehension. The present review therefore synthesizes transferable mechanisms and specifies what
must be examined locally without presenting international findings as Ecuadorian causal evidence.
1.2 Research Questions
This study addresses the following research questions:
What factors contribute to the development of reading apprehension in EFL high school students?
How does reading apprehension affect students' engagement with and outcomes in EFL learning?
What pedagogical strategies are most effective in reducing reading apprehension in EFL classrooms?
1.3 Research Objectives
General objective:
To analyze reading apprehension as experienced by B.G.E. high school students in EFL instruction,
identifying its contributing factors and the pedagogical strategies most effective in reducing it, as
informed by current theoretical literature and practicum-based observation.
Specific objectives:
To identify and examine the affective, motivational, and contextual factors that contribute to the
development of reading apprehension in EFL B.G.E. high school students, drawing on theoretical
frameworks and empirical literature published between 2020 and 2026.
To recognize the pedagogical strategies documented in current research that demonstrate effectiveness
in reducing reading apprehension and promoting autonomous, motivated reading in EFL secondary
contexts.
1.4 Significance of the Study
Understanding reading apprehension is foundational to improving EFL outcomes in Ecuadorian high
schools. At the theoretical level, this review integrates motivational, affective, and developmental
frameworks that are rarely read together in EFL reading research, producing a more complete account
of how apprehension develops and why it resists conventional instruction. At the practical level, the
findings offer pre-service teachers in B.G.E. practicum placements a framework for recognizing
apprehension-related behaviors, student silence, off-task behavior during reading tasks, avoidance, and
responding to them with evidence-based strategies rather than disciplinary responses.
apprehension. The present review therefore synthesizes transferable mechanisms and specifies what
must be examined locally without presenting international findings as Ecuadorian causal evidence.
1.2 Research Questions
This study addresses the following research questions:
What factors contribute to the development of reading apprehension in EFL high school students?
How does reading apprehension affect students' engagement with and outcomes in EFL learning?
What pedagogical strategies are most effective in reducing reading apprehension in EFL classrooms?
1.3 Research Objectives
General objective:
To analyze reading apprehension as experienced by B.G.E. high school students in EFL instruction,
identifying its contributing factors and the pedagogical strategies most effective in reducing it, as
informed by current theoretical literature and practicum-based observation.
Specific objectives:
To identify and examine the affective, motivational, and contextual factors that contribute to the
development of reading apprehension in EFL B.G.E. high school students, drawing on theoretical
frameworks and empirical literature published between 2020 and 2026.
To recognize the pedagogical strategies documented in current research that demonstrate effectiveness
in reducing reading apprehension and promoting autonomous, motivated reading in EFL secondary
contexts.
1.4 Significance of the Study
Understanding reading apprehension is foundational to improving EFL outcomes in Ecuadorian high
schools. At the theoretical level, this review integrates motivational, affective, and developmental
frameworks that are rarely read together in EFL reading research, producing a more complete account
of how apprehension develops and why it resists conventional instruction. At the practical level, the
findings offer pre-service teachers in B.G.E. practicum placements a framework for recognizing
apprehension-related behaviors, student silence, off-task behavior during reading tasks, avoidance, and
responding to them with evidence-based strategies rather than disciplinary responses.
pág. 2621
For curriculum designers, the review identifies specific instructional adjustments, student text choice,
collaborative reading, ungraded reading time, compatible with the national EFL curriculum framework
that could systematically reduce the affective barriers preventing B.G.E. students from meeting the
English reading standards assessed in the Prueba Ser Bachiller and required for bachillerato completion.
2. METHODOLOGY
This study follows an integrative theoretical bibliographic review design and does not collect primary
data through experiments, surveys, or interviews. Practicum-based observations provide the experiential
context that motivated the problem and its pedagogical relevance; they were not systematically recorded
or analyzed as evidence about participants or learning outcomes. The unit of analysis is a corpus of 25
peer-reviewed publications, while the 2016 national EFL curriculum is used only to establish
institutional context.
2.1 Heuristic Stage
The search covered publications dated from January 2020 to July 2026 and was conducted in ERIC,
Scopus, JSTOR, SciELO, and Google Scholar. English and Spanish combinations were used for the
concepts reading apprehension, reading anxiety, reading motivation, reading self-efficacy, EFL, English
as a foreign language, secondary school, high school, extensive reading, reading strategies, collaborative
reading, Ecuador, and Latin America. The search terms were combined with AND and OR and adapted
to the syntax of each database. Although the search window included 2026, no 2026 publication met the
topical and methodological criteria for inclusion.
The search log recorded 214 documents at identification. Title-and-abstract screening removed 163
records that did not address the phenomenon, population, EFL/ESL context, or a transferable reading
mechanism. Fifty-one full texts were then assessed. Twenty-six were excluded after full-text review: 12
focused exclusively on first-language reading with no defensible EFL connection; 9 examined higher
education without a transferable secondary-school mechanism; 3 lacked sufficient methodological
information; and 2 were duplicate versions. The resulting corpus contained 25 peer-reviewed
publications. The historical log preserved aggregate counts but not reliable database-by-database
subtotals; those subtotals were therefore not reconstructed.
For curriculum designers, the review identifies specific instructional adjustments, student text choice,
collaborative reading, ungraded reading time, compatible with the national EFL curriculum framework
that could systematically reduce the affective barriers preventing B.G.E. students from meeting the
English reading standards assessed in the Prueba Ser Bachiller and required for bachillerato completion.
2. METHODOLOGY
This study follows an integrative theoretical bibliographic review design and does not collect primary
data through experiments, surveys, or interviews. Practicum-based observations provide the experiential
context that motivated the problem and its pedagogical relevance; they were not systematically recorded
or analyzed as evidence about participants or learning outcomes. The unit of analysis is a corpus of 25
peer-reviewed publications, while the 2016 national EFL curriculum is used only to establish
institutional context.
2.1 Heuristic Stage
The search covered publications dated from January 2020 to July 2026 and was conducted in ERIC,
Scopus, JSTOR, SciELO, and Google Scholar. English and Spanish combinations were used for the
concepts reading apprehension, reading anxiety, reading motivation, reading self-efficacy, EFL, English
as a foreign language, secondary school, high school, extensive reading, reading strategies, collaborative
reading, Ecuador, and Latin America. The search terms were combined with AND and OR and adapted
to the syntax of each database. Although the search window included 2026, no 2026 publication met the
topical and methodological criteria for inclusion.
The search log recorded 214 documents at identification. Title-and-abstract screening removed 163
records that did not address the phenomenon, population, EFL/ESL context, or a transferable reading
mechanism. Fifty-one full texts were then assessed. Twenty-six were excluded after full-text review: 12
focused exclusively on first-language reading with no defensible EFL connection; 9 examined higher
education without a transferable secondary-school mechanism; 3 lacked sufficient methodological
information; and 2 were duplicate versions. The resulting corpus contained 25 peer-reviewed
publications. The historical log preserved aggregate counts but not reliable database-by-database
subtotals; those subtotals were therefore not reconstructed.
pág. 2622
2.2 Hermeneutic Stage
Each full text was organized in an evidence matrix containing author and year, country, design,
participants or context, principal finding, methodological limitation, and contribution to the present
review. Initial coding assigned findings to the three research questions: factors contributing to
apprehension, effects on engagement and learning, and pedagogical responses. A second comparative
reading identified recurrent subthemes, including self-efficacy, text demand, instructional climate, prior
literacy experience, autonomy, strategy scaffolding, and collaboration.
Interpretation followed three safeguards. First, correlational evidence was not rewritten as causal
evidence. Second, findings from university samples were used only when they described a theoretically
transferable mechanism and were explicitly marked as indirect for B.G.E. students. Third, Ecuadorian
claims were restricted to studies conducted in Ecuador; international evidence was presented as a basis
for propositions requiring local testing. Agreements, discrepancies, strengths, and limitations were
recorded in the matrix and used to construct the conceptual model rather than being averaged into a
single effect estimate.
The model emerged through convergence coding. A factor was assigned to Variable A when at least
two independent sources linked it to reading affect or engagement; the central pattern of avoidance and
low willingness was represented as Variable B; and participation, strategic processing, comprehension,
and sustained exposure were grouped as Variable C. Pedagogical practices were treated as moderators
only when intervention or synthesis evidence described a plausible change in engagement or reading
outcomes. This rule explains both the structure and the limits of the model.
2.3 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Sources were included when they met the following criteria:
Peer-reviewed publication dated between 2020 and 2026 and written in English or Spanish.
Direct attention to EFL/ESL reading or to a reading-related affective, motivational, self-efficacy,
engagement, comprehension, or pedagogical mechanism with a stated connection to the present EFL
problem.
A secondary-school population, or another age group when the study offered a clearly relevant
mechanism whose transfer limitations could be stated.
2.2 Hermeneutic Stage
Each full text was organized in an evidence matrix containing author and year, country, design,
participants or context, principal finding, methodological limitation, and contribution to the present
review. Initial coding assigned findings to the three research questions: factors contributing to
apprehension, effects on engagement and learning, and pedagogical responses. A second comparative
reading identified recurrent subthemes, including self-efficacy, text demand, instructional climate, prior
literacy experience, autonomy, strategy scaffolding, and collaboration.
Interpretation followed three safeguards. First, correlational evidence was not rewritten as causal
evidence. Second, findings from university samples were used only when they described a theoretically
transferable mechanism and were explicitly marked as indirect for B.G.E. students. Third, Ecuadorian
claims were restricted to studies conducted in Ecuador; international evidence was presented as a basis
for propositions requiring local testing. Agreements, discrepancies, strengths, and limitations were
recorded in the matrix and used to construct the conceptual model rather than being averaged into a
single effect estimate.
The model emerged through convergence coding. A factor was assigned to Variable A when at least
two independent sources linked it to reading affect or engagement; the central pattern of avoidance and
low willingness was represented as Variable B; and participation, strategic processing, comprehension,
and sustained exposure were grouped as Variable C. Pedagogical practices were treated as moderators
only when intervention or synthesis evidence described a plausible change in engagement or reading
outcomes. This rule explains both the structure and the limits of the model.
2.3 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Sources were included when they met the following criteria:
Peer-reviewed publication dated between 2020 and 2026 and written in English or Spanish.
Direct attention to EFL/ESL reading or to a reading-related affective, motivational, self-efficacy,
engagement, comprehension, or pedagogical mechanism with a stated connection to the present EFL
problem.
A secondary-school population, or another age group when the study offered a clearly relevant
mechanism whose transfer limitations could be stated.
pág. 2623
Sufficient methodological information about the design, participants or context, and findings.
Sources were excluded when they met any of the following conditions:
Publication outside the review period, except for the official curriculum document used only for context.
Exclusive focus on first-language reading with no relevant connection to EFL/ESL learning.
Higher-education evidence without a transferable contribution to the secondary-school problem.
Editorial, thesis, dissertation, conference abstract, duplicate, or publication lacking sufficient
methodological information.
Figure 1
Flow of Identification, Screening, Eligibility, and Inclusion of Studies
3. Results and Discussion
The 25 studies retained for analysis are summarized in Table 1. Presenting the corpus before the thematic
findings allows the reader to distinguish direct secondary-school evidence from evidence whose
relevance is theoretical or contextual. The matrix summarizes the study characteristics required for
interpretation. “Contribution” indicates how each publication informed the synthesis; it does not imply
that findings from another population transfer automatically to Ecuadorian B.G.E. classrooms.
Sufficient methodological information about the design, participants or context, and findings.
Sources were excluded when they met any of the following conditions:
Publication outside the review period, except for the official curriculum document used only for context.
Exclusive focus on first-language reading with no relevant connection to EFL/ESL learning.
Higher-education evidence without a transferable contribution to the secondary-school problem.
Editorial, thesis, dissertation, conference abstract, duplicate, or publication lacking sufficient
methodological information.
Figure 1
Flow of Identification, Screening, Eligibility, and Inclusion of Studies
3. Results and Discussion
The 25 studies retained for analysis are summarized in Table 1. Presenting the corpus before the thematic
findings allows the reader to distinguish direct secondary-school evidence from evidence whose
relevance is theoretical or contextual. The matrix summarizes the study characteristics required for
interpretation. “Contribution” indicates how each publication informed the synthesis; it does not imply
that findings from another population transfer automatically to Ecuadorian B.G.E. classrooms.
pág. 2624
Table 1
Matrix of the 25 Studies Included in the Review
Source Country/region Design Participants/context Main finding Contribution to this review
Anggia &
Habók (2024)
Multiple
contexts
Systematic review
Online English
extensive reading
Synthesizes quantitative and
mixed-methods studies;
transfer depends on context.
Supports cautious use of choice-
based extensive reading.
Bakkaloğlu &
Pilten (2023)
Türkiye Correlational survey 571 Grade 4 students
Motivation and
comprehension self-efficacy
were positively associated.
Supports the self-efficacy
component, not causal claims.
Fitrawati et al.
(2023)
Indonesia Survey
30 university EFL
students
Unfamiliar language, topics
and fear of error were salient
anxiety factors.
Identifies possible affective
antecedents.
Gebremariam &
Weldeyohannes
(2025)
Ethiopia Quasi-experimental Secondary students
Critical reading strategies were
linked to gains in
comprehension and
motivation.
Supports strategy instruction as a
classroom lever.
Ismail et al.
(2023)
China Quasi-experimental
50 university EFL
students
Task-based reading improved
comprehension; affective
Supports meaningful-task design.
Table 1
Matrix of the 25 Studies Included in the Review
Source Country/region Design Participants/context Main finding Contribution to this review
Anggia &
Habók (2024)
Multiple
contexts
Systematic review
Online English
extensive reading
Synthesizes quantitative and
mixed-methods studies;
transfer depends on context.
Supports cautious use of choice-
based extensive reading.
Bakkaloğlu &
Pilten (2023)
Türkiye Correlational survey 571 Grade 4 students
Motivation and
comprehension self-efficacy
were positively associated.
Supports the self-efficacy
component, not causal claims.
Fitrawati et al.
(2023)
Indonesia Survey
30 university EFL
students
Unfamiliar language, topics
and fear of error were salient
anxiety factors.
Identifies possible affective
antecedents.
Gebremariam &
Weldeyohannes
(2025)
Ethiopia Quasi-experimental Secondary students
Critical reading strategies were
linked to gains in
comprehension and
motivation.
Supports strategy instruction as a
classroom lever.
Ismail et al.
(2023)
China Quasi-experimental
50 university EFL
students
Task-based reading improved
comprehension; affective
Supports meaningful-task design.
pág. 2625
outcomes require contextual
interpretation.
Jarssa et al.
(2025)
Ethiopia
Mixed-methods quasi-
experiment
106 Grade 11 students
Integrated reading improved
self-efficacy and motivation
relative to usual practice.
Closest secondary-school
intervention evidence.
Koné (2023) Mali Qualitative diaries
60 university EFL
students
Cohesive reading circles and
enjoyment accompanied
higher engagement.
Supports collaborative reading,
with limited transferability.
Li & Gan
(2022)
China Cross-sectional model
543 university EFL
students
Motivation, strategies and
vocabulary jointly related to
comprehension.
Supports a multi-factor rather than
single-cause model.
Li et al. (2022) China Mixed-methods intervention
117 university EFL
students
Strategy instruction improved
comprehension; motivational
change was not automatic.
Prevents overclaiming
intervention effects.
Li et al. (2024) China Survey/SEM
405 secondary EFL
students
Motivation and learning
strategies were positively
Direct secondary-EFL evidence.
outcomes require contextual
interpretation.
Jarssa et al.
(2025)
Ethiopia
Mixed-methods quasi-
experiment
106 Grade 11 students
Integrated reading improved
self-efficacy and motivation
relative to usual practice.
Closest secondary-school
intervention evidence.
Koné (2023) Mali Qualitative diaries
60 university EFL
students
Cohesive reading circles and
enjoyment accompanied
higher engagement.
Supports collaborative reading,
with limited transferability.
Li & Gan
(2022)
China Cross-sectional model
543 university EFL
students
Motivation, strategies and
vocabulary jointly related to
comprehension.
Supports a multi-factor rather than
single-cause model.
Li et al. (2022) China Mixed-methods intervention
117 university EFL
students
Strategy instruction improved
comprehension; motivational
change was not automatic.
Prevents overclaiming
intervention effects.
Li et al. (2024) China Survey/SEM
405 secondary EFL
students
Motivation and learning
strategies were positively
Direct secondary-EFL evidence.
pág. 2626
related and varied by school
level.
Maipoka &
Soontornwipast
(2021)
Thailand Pre/post mixed methods
11 primary EFL
students
Integrated intensive-extensive
reading improved English
reading ability.
Illustrates early-stage instructional
potential.
Mardianti et al.
(2021)
Indonesia Correlational 50 ESP students
Higher reading anxiety was
associated with lower
comprehension.
Supports anxiety as a related,
distinct construct.
Miao &
Vibulphol
(2021)
China Survey
459 university EFL
students
General reading ability and
vocabulary-related factors
were prominent anxiety
sources.
Supports text and learner
antecedents.
Romero-
González et al.
(2023)
Spain Quantitative study
Children aged 6–8 and
adults
Active home literacy
environment related to
motivation and performance.
Supports a
developmental/contextual
antecedent.
related and varied by school
level.
Maipoka &
Soontornwipast
(2021)
Thailand Pre/post mixed methods
11 primary EFL
students
Integrated intensive-extensive
reading improved English
reading ability.
Illustrates early-stage instructional
potential.
Mardianti et al.
(2021)
Indonesia Correlational 50 ESP students
Higher reading anxiety was
associated with lower
comprehension.
Supports anxiety as a related,
distinct construct.
Miao &
Vibulphol
(2021)
China Survey
459 university EFL
students
General reading ability and
vocabulary-related factors
were prominent anxiety
sources.
Supports text and learner
antecedents.
Romero-
González et al.
(2023)
Spain Quantitative study
Children aged 6–8 and
adults
Active home literacy
environment related to
motivation and performance.
Supports a
developmental/contextual
antecedent.
pág. 2627
Stander (2022) South Africa Mixed methods
First-year university
students
Affective strategies and
proficiency were positively
related.
Supports affective factors as
relevant to L2 learning.
Tegmark et al.
(2022)
Sweden Qualitative student study
Middle/lower-
secondary students
Students valued meaningful
practices and opportunities for
agency.
Supports choice and relevance, not
direct efficacy claims.
Toste et al.
(2020)
Multiple
contexts
Meta-analysis K–12 studies
Motivation and reading
achievement showed a
meaningful association.
High-level evidence for
motivational relevance.
Valizadeh
(2021)
Iran Quasi-experimental EFL learners
Reading strategy instruction
reduced reported reading
anxiety.
Supports strategies as a plausible
protective factor.
van der Sande,
Dobber, et al.
(2023)
Netherlands Longitudinal/observational
Kindergarten and
Grade 1
Reading attitudes are
observable early in schooling.
Supports early-development
caution.
Stander (2022) South Africa Mixed methods
First-year university
students
Affective strategies and
proficiency were positively
related.
Supports affective factors as
relevant to L2 learning.
Tegmark et al.
(2022)
Sweden Qualitative student study
Middle/lower-
secondary students
Students valued meaningful
practices and opportunities for
agency.
Supports choice and relevance, not
direct efficacy claims.
Toste et al.
(2020)
Multiple
contexts
Meta-analysis K–12 studies
Motivation and reading
achievement showed a
meaningful association.
High-level evidence for
motivational relevance.
Valizadeh
(2021)
Iran Quasi-experimental EFL learners
Reading strategy instruction
reduced reported reading
anxiety.
Supports strategies as a plausible
protective factor.
van der Sande,
Dobber, et al.
(2023)
Netherlands Longitudinal/observational
Kindergarten and
Grade 1
Reading attitudes are
observable early in schooling.
Supports early-development
caution.
pág. 2628
van der Sande,
van Steensel, et
al. (2023)
Multiple
contexts
Meta-analysis
Motivation
interventions
Interventions can foster
reading motivation; effects
vary by design.
Supports targeted, evidence-
informed interventions.
Zhang & Kim
(2025)
China Structural model
University EFL
students
Teacher support related to
engagement through
motivational pathways.
Supports classroom climate and
support.
Zhou & Zhang
(2025)
China Longitudinal mixed methods
293 university EFL
students
Self-efficacy and strategy use
showed reciprocal links over
time.
Supports dynamic rather than
fixed affective patterns.
Andrade-
Molina et al.
(2022)
Ecuador Questionnaire/correlational
128 students aged 16–
18 in two Ibarra high
schools
Ideal L2 self and positive
learning experience were
salient predictors of motivated
behavior.
Provides direct Ecuadorian
secondary-EFL motivational
context.
Díaz Chávez et
al. (2023)
Ecuador
Mixed-methods quasi-
experiment
Tenth-grade students
and pre-service
teachers in Loja
Lesson study with reading
strategies improved
comprehension and supported
teacher learning.
Provides direct Ecuadorian
reading/practicum evidence;
affective effects were not isolated.
van der Sande,
van Steensel, et
al. (2023)
Multiple
contexts
Meta-analysis
Motivation
interventions
Interventions can foster
reading motivation; effects
vary by design.
Supports targeted, evidence-
informed interventions.
Zhang & Kim
(2025)
China Structural model
University EFL
students
Teacher support related to
engagement through
motivational pathways.
Supports classroom climate and
support.
Zhou & Zhang
(2025)
China Longitudinal mixed methods
293 university EFL
students
Self-efficacy and strategy use
showed reciprocal links over
time.
Supports dynamic rather than
fixed affective patterns.
Andrade-
Molina et al.
(2022)
Ecuador Questionnaire/correlational
128 students aged 16–
18 in two Ibarra high
schools
Ideal L2 self and positive
learning experience were
salient predictors of motivated
behavior.
Provides direct Ecuadorian
secondary-EFL motivational
context.
Díaz Chávez et
al. (2023)
Ecuador
Mixed-methods quasi-
experiment
Tenth-grade students
and pre-service
teachers in Loja
Lesson study with reading
strategies improved
comprehension and supported
teacher learning.
Provides direct Ecuadorian
reading/practicum evidence;
affective effects were not isolated.
pág. 2629
Soto et al.
(2025)
Ecuador Qualitative literature review
20 Ecuadorian EFL
studies across
educational levels
Found little motivation
research in Ecuadorian
primary/secondary settings
and identified reading-
motivation gaps.
Corroborates the local evidence
gap and prevents claims of
complete national absence.
Soto et al.
(2025)
Ecuador Qualitative literature review
20 Ecuadorian EFL
studies across
educational levels
Found little motivation
research in Ecuadorian
primary/secondary settings
and identified reading-
motivation gaps.
Corroborates the local evidence
gap and prevents claims of
complete national absence.
2617pág. 2630
3.1 Conceptual Framework
The framework is a product of the two-cycle coding procedure, not a pre-existing instrument. Four
recurrent families of evidence converged. First, motivational and self-efficacy studies linked learner
beliefs to engagement or comprehension (Bakkaloğlu & Pilten, 2023; Li & Gan, 2022; Toste et al.,
2020). Second, EFL anxiety studies identified vocabulary, unfamiliar content, and fear of error as task-
level affective demands (Fitrawati et al., 2023; Mardianti et al., 2021; Miao & Vibulphol, 2021). Third,
developmental evidence located reading attitudes and literacy support before secondary school
(Romero-González et al., 2023; van der Sande, Dobber, et al., 2023). Fourth, intervention research
showed that strategy scaffolds, integrated reading, and autonomy-supportive practices can alter
participation or reading outcomes, although not uniformly (Anggia & Habók, 2024; Jarssa et al., 2025;
Li et al., 2022).
These convergent strands produced three analytic variables. Variable A contains antecedent conditions:
prior literacy opportunities, text accessibility, vocabulary demands, learner self-efficacy, and
instructional climate. Variable B is reading apprehension, defined in this review as the observable
pattern of avoidance, frustration, boredom, and low willingness to engage. Variable C is reading
engagement and EFL learning opportunities, expressed through participation, strategic processing,
comprehension, and sustained contact with texts. Pedagogical supports are proposed as moderators of
the B–C relation because the intervention literature changes the conditions under which learners
approach texts; their effects in Ecuadorian B.G.E. classrooms remain to be tested.
3.1 Conceptual Framework
The framework is a product of the two-cycle coding procedure, not a pre-existing instrument. Four
recurrent families of evidence converged. First, motivational and self-efficacy studies linked learner
beliefs to engagement or comprehension (Bakkaloğlu & Pilten, 2023; Li & Gan, 2022; Toste et al.,
2020). Second, EFL anxiety studies identified vocabulary, unfamiliar content, and fear of error as task-
level affective demands (Fitrawati et al., 2023; Mardianti et al., 2021; Miao & Vibulphol, 2021). Third,
developmental evidence located reading attitudes and literacy support before secondary school
(Romero-González et al., 2023; van der Sande, Dobber, et al., 2023). Fourth, intervention research
showed that strategy scaffolds, integrated reading, and autonomy-supportive practices can alter
participation or reading outcomes, although not uniformly (Anggia & Habók, 2024; Jarssa et al., 2025;
Li et al., 2022).
These convergent strands produced three analytic variables. Variable A contains antecedent conditions:
prior literacy opportunities, text accessibility, vocabulary demands, learner self-efficacy, and
instructional climate. Variable B is reading apprehension, defined in this review as the observable
pattern of avoidance, frustration, boredom, and low willingness to engage. Variable C is reading
engagement and EFL learning opportunities, expressed through participation, strategic processing,
comprehension, and sustained contact with texts. Pedagogical supports are proposed as moderators of
the B–C relation because the intervention literature changes the conditions under which learners
approach texts; their effects in Ecuadorian B.G.E. classrooms remain to be tested.
pág. 2631
Table 2
Conceptual Framework for Reading Apprehension in Ecuadorian B.G.E. EFL Contexts
Variable Definition in this review Indicative evidence
A. Antecedent conditions Text accessibility, prior literacy
opportunities, self-efficacy, and
instructional climate.
Bakkaloğlu & Pilten (2023); Miao
& Vibulphol (2021); Romero-
González et al. (2023).
B. Reading apprehension A classroom pattern of avoidance,
frustration, boredom, and low
willingness to engage; not a
clinical diagnosis.
Related evidence: Fitrawati et al.
(2023); Mardianti et al. (2021).
C. Engagement and learning
opportunities
Participation, strategic processing,
and sustained contact with texts
that support comprehension and
language learning.
Li & Gan (2022); Toste et al.
(2020); Zhang & Kim (2025).
3.2 Factors Contributing to Reading Apprehension (RQ1)
The reviewed literature does not support a single origin for reading apprehension. Instead, it points to
interacting conditions. At learner level, reading self-efficacy and motivation are positively associated in
general reading research (Bakkaloğlu & Pilten, 2023), while EFL studies connect reading efficacy and
strategy use over time (Zhou & Zhang, 2025). In Ecuadorian high schools, Andrade-Molina et al. (2022)
found that the ideal L2 self and the learning experience were more salient for motivated behavior than
externally imposed expectations, a result consistent with the present emphasis on agency. At text level,
unfamiliar vocabulary, cultural content, and the expectation of understanding every detail can heighten
anxiety in EFL reading (Fitrawati et al., 2023; Miao & Vibulphol, 2021). At classroom level, supportive
Table 2
Conceptual Framework for Reading Apprehension in Ecuadorian B.G.E. EFL Contexts
Variable Definition in this review Indicative evidence
A. Antecedent conditions Text accessibility, prior literacy
opportunities, self-efficacy, and
instructional climate.
Bakkaloğlu & Pilten (2023); Miao
& Vibulphol (2021); Romero-
González et al. (2023).
B. Reading apprehension A classroom pattern of avoidance,
frustration, boredom, and low
willingness to engage; not a
clinical diagnosis.
Related evidence: Fitrawati et al.
(2023); Mardianti et al. (2021).
C. Engagement and learning
opportunities
Participation, strategic processing,
and sustained contact with texts
that support comprehension and
language learning.
Li & Gan (2022); Toste et al.
(2020); Zhang & Kim (2025).
3.2 Factors Contributing to Reading Apprehension (RQ1)
The reviewed literature does not support a single origin for reading apprehension. Instead, it points to
interacting conditions. At learner level, reading self-efficacy and motivation are positively associated in
general reading research (Bakkaloğlu & Pilten, 2023), while EFL studies connect reading efficacy and
strategy use over time (Zhou & Zhang, 2025). In Ecuadorian high schools, Andrade-Molina et al. (2022)
found that the ideal L2 self and the learning experience were more salient for motivated behavior than
externally imposed expectations, a result consistent with the present emphasis on agency. At text level,
unfamiliar vocabulary, cultural content, and the expectation of understanding every detail can heighten
anxiety in EFL reading (Fitrawati et al., 2023; Miao & Vibulphol, 2021). At classroom level, supportive
pág. 2632
feedback, meaningful tasks, and teacher support are associated with engagement pathways (Ismail et al.,
2023; Zhang & Kim, 2025).
These strands should not be conflated. A low vocabulary threshold may create task difficulty; a negative
self-belief may shape the interpretation of that difficulty; and an assessment-heavy classroom may
increase the perceived risk of error. None alone demonstrates that a learner has stable apprehension. The
appropriate inference is a contextual one: recurrent exposure to tasks experienced as too difficult, low-
control, or socially risky may be associated with avoidance and low engagement.
Table 3
Factors Associated with Reading Apprehension and Related Affective Barriers
Factor group How it may contribute Illustrative sources
Learner beliefs Low self-efficacy or a history of
unsuccessful reading can make a
task seem unmanageable.
Andrade-Molina et al. (2022);
Bakkaloğlu & Pilten (2023); Zhou
& Zhang (2025).
Text demands Unfamiliar vocabulary, culture,
and the expectation to understand
every detail may heighten anxiety.
Fitrawati et al. (2023); Miao &
Vibulphol (2021).
Instructional climate Low-control, error-focused, or
weakly supported tasks can reduce
participation.
Ismail et al. (2023); Zhang & Kim
(2025).
Prior literacy context Home literacy and early reading
attitudes shape, but do not
determine, later engagement.
Romero-González et al. (2023);
van der Sande, Dobber, et al.
(2023).
The strength of these claims varies by design. Meta-analytic and longitudinal studies support broad links
among motivation, attitudes, and achievement, but they do not isolate reading apprehension as a separate
construct (Toste et al., 2020; van der Sande, van Steensel, et al., 2023; Zhou & Zhang, 2025). EFL
anxiety studies provide closer construct relevance, yet several use small or university samples (Fitrawati
feedback, meaningful tasks, and teacher support are associated with engagement pathways (Ismail et al.,
2023; Zhang & Kim, 2025).
These strands should not be conflated. A low vocabulary threshold may create task difficulty; a negative
self-belief may shape the interpretation of that difficulty; and an assessment-heavy classroom may
increase the perceived risk of error. None alone demonstrates that a learner has stable apprehension. The
appropriate inference is a contextual one: recurrent exposure to tasks experienced as too difficult, low-
control, or socially risky may be associated with avoidance and low engagement.
Table 3
Factors Associated with Reading Apprehension and Related Affective Barriers
Factor group How it may contribute Illustrative sources
Learner beliefs Low self-efficacy or a history of
unsuccessful reading can make a
task seem unmanageable.
Andrade-Molina et al. (2022);
Bakkaloğlu & Pilten (2023); Zhou
& Zhang (2025).
Text demands Unfamiliar vocabulary, culture,
and the expectation to understand
every detail may heighten anxiety.
Fitrawati et al. (2023); Miao &
Vibulphol (2021).
Instructional climate Low-control, error-focused, or
weakly supported tasks can reduce
participation.
Ismail et al. (2023); Zhang & Kim
(2025).
Prior literacy context Home literacy and early reading
attitudes shape, but do not
determine, later engagement.
Romero-González et al. (2023);
van der Sande, Dobber, et al.
(2023).
The strength of these claims varies by design. Meta-analytic and longitudinal studies support broad links
among motivation, attitudes, and achievement, but they do not isolate reading apprehension as a separate
construct (Toste et al., 2020; van der Sande, van Steensel, et al., 2023; Zhou & Zhang, 2025). EFL
anxiety studies provide closer construct relevance, yet several use small or university samples (Fitrawati
pág. 2633
et al., 2023; Mardianti et al., 2021). The Ecuadorian evidence improves contextual fit but focuses on
general L2 motivation rather than reading-specific avoidance (Andrade-Molina et al., 2022; Soto et al.,
2025). Therefore, RQ1 is best answered through an interaction model, not a ranked list of independent
causes.
3.3 Impact of Reading Apprehension on EFL Language Learning (RQ2)
The strongest aggregate evidence concerns the association between motivation and reading
achievement. Toste et al. (2020) synthesized K–12 research and found that motivational processes are
meaningfully related to reading outcomes. In EFL settings, Li and Gan (2022) found that motivation,
self-regulated strategies, and vocabulary knowledge jointly predicted English reading comprehension.
Mardianti et al. (2021) reported a negative relation between reading anxiety and comprehension in an
ESP sample. These findings justify attention to affective barriers, but they remain associative or context-
bound; they do not prove that any one instructional practice will reverse them in Ecuador.
A second critical point is that strategy instruction does not automatically transform motivation. In a
mixed-methods EFL intervention, Li et al. (2022) found improvement in comprehension but no
immediate significant change in self-reported motivation or self-efficacy. This is a useful corrective to
simplistic claims: cognitive support may improve performance while affective change requires repeated,
credible experiences of competence and agency.
Direct Ecuadorian reading evidence points in the same cautious direction. Díaz Chávez et al. (2023)
reported gains in tenth-grade reading comprehension through a lesson-study intervention and described
benefits for pre-service teacher learning; however, the study did not isolate reading apprehension as an
outcome. Accordingly, the reviewed evidence supports an association between affective barriers and
reduced engagement or outcomes, but it does not establish a national effect size or prevalence for
Ecuadorian B.G.E. students. The most defensible response to RQ2 is that apprehension is expected to
limit participation, persistence, strategy use, and exposure to language input, with comprehension effects
mediated by task difficulty and instructional support.
et al., 2023; Mardianti et al., 2021). The Ecuadorian evidence improves contextual fit but focuses on
general L2 motivation rather than reading-specific avoidance (Andrade-Molina et al., 2022; Soto et al.,
2025). Therefore, RQ1 is best answered through an interaction model, not a ranked list of independent
causes.
3.3 Impact of Reading Apprehension on EFL Language Learning (RQ2)
The strongest aggregate evidence concerns the association between motivation and reading
achievement. Toste et al. (2020) synthesized K–12 research and found that motivational processes are
meaningfully related to reading outcomes. In EFL settings, Li and Gan (2022) found that motivation,
self-regulated strategies, and vocabulary knowledge jointly predicted English reading comprehension.
Mardianti et al. (2021) reported a negative relation between reading anxiety and comprehension in an
ESP sample. These findings justify attention to affective barriers, but they remain associative or context-
bound; they do not prove that any one instructional practice will reverse them in Ecuador.
A second critical point is that strategy instruction does not automatically transform motivation. In a
mixed-methods EFL intervention, Li et al. (2022) found improvement in comprehension but no
immediate significant change in self-reported motivation or self-efficacy. This is a useful corrective to
simplistic claims: cognitive support may improve performance while affective change requires repeated,
credible experiences of competence and agency.
Direct Ecuadorian reading evidence points in the same cautious direction. Díaz Chávez et al. (2023)
reported gains in tenth-grade reading comprehension through a lesson-study intervention and described
benefits for pre-service teacher learning; however, the study did not isolate reading apprehension as an
outcome. Accordingly, the reviewed evidence supports an association between affective barriers and
reduced engagement or outcomes, but it does not establish a national effect size or prevalence for
Ecuadorian B.G.E. students. The most defensible response to RQ2 is that apprehension is expected to
limit participation, persistence, strategy use, and exposure to language input, with comprehension effects
mediated by task difficulty and instructional support.
pág. 2634
3.4 Pedagogical Strategies for Reducing Reading Apprehension (RQ3)
Table 4
Pedagogical Strategies and Boundaries of the Evidence
Practice Mechanism proposed by the
review
Boundary of the evidence
Supported text choice and
extensive reading
Choice and accessible texts can
strengthen perceived relevance and
autonomy.
Promising synthesis evidence, but
EFL exposure and implementation
vary (Anggia & Habók, 2024;
Tegmark et al., 2022).
Explicit strategy instruction Prediction, questioning,
annotation, summarizing, and
monitoring can make a task more
manageable.
Comprehension effects are clearer
than immediate motivational
effects (Li et al., 2022; Valizadeh,
2021).
Collaborative reading Reading circles and guided peer
work can distribute cognitive and
social load.
Evidence is engagement-focused
and context-specific (Koné, 2023).
Integrated intensive and extensive
reading
Guided close reading plus broader
exposure creates supported success
and reading volume.
Small or quasi-experimental
samples limit generalization
(Jarssa et al., 2025; Maipoka &
Soontornwipast, 2021).
Supportive instructional climate Clear feedback, meaningful tasks,
care, and participation
opportunities may reduce
perceived risk.
Teacher support cannot replace
accessible texts or explicit strategy
teaching (Zhang & Kim, 2025).
3.4 Pedagogical Strategies for Reducing Reading Apprehension (RQ3)
Table 4
Pedagogical Strategies and Boundaries of the Evidence
Practice Mechanism proposed by the
review
Boundary of the evidence
Supported text choice and
extensive reading
Choice and accessible texts can
strengthen perceived relevance and
autonomy.
Promising synthesis evidence, but
EFL exposure and implementation
vary (Anggia & Habók, 2024;
Tegmark et al., 2022).
Explicit strategy instruction Prediction, questioning,
annotation, summarizing, and
monitoring can make a task more
manageable.
Comprehension effects are clearer
than immediate motivational
effects (Li et al., 2022; Valizadeh,
2021).
Collaborative reading Reading circles and guided peer
work can distribute cognitive and
social load.
Evidence is engagement-focused
and context-specific (Koné, 2023).
Integrated intensive and extensive
reading
Guided close reading plus broader
exposure creates supported success
and reading volume.
Small or quasi-experimental
samples limit generalization
(Jarssa et al., 2025; Maipoka &
Soontornwipast, 2021).
Supportive instructional climate Clear feedback, meaningful tasks,
care, and participation
opportunities may reduce
perceived risk.
Teacher support cannot replace
accessible texts or explicit strategy
teaching (Zhang & Kim, 2025).
pág. 2635
Practice Mechanism proposed by the
review
Boundary of the evidence
Lesson study and practicum
reflection
Collaborative planning,
observation, and revision connect
student evidence to instructional
decisions.
One Ecuadorian study improved
comprehension but did not
measure apprehension directly
(Díaz Chávez et al., 2023).
The evidence does not justify naming one universally “most effective” strategy. The most consistent
pattern is a coordinated package: reachable text difficulty and bounded choice reduce the entry barrier;
explicit strategies raise perceived control; collaboration distributes effort; and low-stakes feedback
protects willingness to continue. Meta-analytic and review evidence is strongest for motivation-related
interventions and extensive reading at a broad level, while quasi-experimental studies offer more direct
evidence for strategy instruction and integrated reading. Their convergence supports the package, but
variation in samples, duration, and outcomes prevents a precise ranking.
For B.G.E. practicum, this synthesis favors short cycles of observation and adjustment. A pre-service
teacher can record the chosen text, difficulty indicators, support provided, participation pattern, and
student explanation; introduce one bounded change; and compare engagement and comprehension
before and after it. This recommendation joins the international evidence with the Ecuadorian lesson-
study experience without claiming that the latter measured apprehension directly (Díaz Chávez et al.,
2023).
Based on Table 4, the findings can be translated into the following brief classroom guide:
1. Choose texts whose vocabulary and length are manageable for the group.
2. Offer a small, guided choice of texts so students retain a sense of control.
3. Explain the purpose of the reading task before students begin.
4. Model one reading strategy at a time, such as predicting, questioning, or summarizing.
5. Break demanding texts into shorter stages with clear instructions.
6. Use pairs or reading circles when peer support can reduce the task burden.
Practice Mechanism proposed by the
review
Boundary of the evidence
Lesson study and practicum
reflection
Collaborative planning,
observation, and revision connect
student evidence to instructional
decisions.
One Ecuadorian study improved
comprehension but did not
measure apprehension directly
(Díaz Chávez et al., 2023).
The evidence does not justify naming one universally “most effective” strategy. The most consistent
pattern is a coordinated package: reachable text difficulty and bounded choice reduce the entry barrier;
explicit strategies raise perceived control; collaboration distributes effort; and low-stakes feedback
protects willingness to continue. Meta-analytic and review evidence is strongest for motivation-related
interventions and extensive reading at a broad level, while quasi-experimental studies offer more direct
evidence for strategy instruction and integrated reading. Their convergence supports the package, but
variation in samples, duration, and outcomes prevents a precise ranking.
For B.G.E. practicum, this synthesis favors short cycles of observation and adjustment. A pre-service
teacher can record the chosen text, difficulty indicators, support provided, participation pattern, and
student explanation; introduce one bounded change; and compare engagement and comprehension
before and after it. This recommendation joins the international evidence with the Ecuadorian lesson-
study experience without claiming that the latter measured apprehension directly (Díaz Chávez et al.,
2023).
Based on Table 4, the findings can be translated into the following brief classroom guide:
1. Choose texts whose vocabulary and length are manageable for the group.
2. Offer a small, guided choice of texts so students retain a sense of control.
3. Explain the purpose of the reading task before students begin.
4. Model one reading strategy at a time, such as predicting, questioning, or summarizing.
5. Break demanding texts into shorter stages with clear instructions.
6. Use pairs or reading circles when peer support can reduce the task burden.
pág. 2636
7. Give low-stakes feedback that treats mistakes as part of learning.
8. Observe participation, persistence, and strategy use instead of assuming a cause for silence.
9. Change one classroom condition at a time and compare student responses.
10. Treat persistent avoidance as a pedagogical signal requiring support, not as a clinical diagnosis.
3.5 Theoretical Propositions
Proposition 1. When demanding text conditions, low perceived reading competence, and low-control
instructional experiences co-occur, students are more likely to display reading apprehension behaviors
(Bakkaloğlu & Pilten, 2023; Fitrawati et al., 2023; Miao & Vibulphol, 2021).
Proposition 2. Reading apprehension behaviors are expected to be associated with lower voluntary
engagement, thereby limiting opportunities for strategic processing and language input (Li & Gan, 2022;
Toste et al., 2020).
Proposition 3. Instruction that combines accessible texts, strategy scaffolds, meaningful choice, and
supportive collaboration is more likely to reduce avoidance than instruction relying only on performance
pressure (Anggia & Habók, 2024; Koné, 2023; Li et al., 2022).
Proposition 4. The strength and form of these relations in Ecuadorian B.G.E. classrooms must be tested
empirically; related Ecuadorian motivation and reading studies do not yet validate the complete model
(Andrade-Molina et al., 2022; Díaz Chávez et al., 2023; Soto et al., 2025).
3.6 Discussion
The Ecuadorian curriculum establishes reading as a central EFL skill, and three retained studies improve
the national contextualization. Andrade-Molina et al. (2022) show that ideal L2 self and learning
experience matter for motivated behavior in Ecuadorian high schools; Díaz Chávez et al. (2023) show
that reading instruction and practicum learning can be studied together; and Soto et al. (2025)
demonstrate that motivation research at Ecuadorian primary and secondary levels remains limited. None
measures the complete constellation of avoidance, frustration, self-efficacy, instructional climate, and
reading outcomes proposed here. Consequently, claims about B.G.E. remain theoretical propositions
rather than local causal estimates.
The revised evidence changes the article’s central argument in an important way. The question is not
whether one method “solves” reading apprehension, but how classroom conditions shape students’
7. Give low-stakes feedback that treats mistakes as part of learning.
8. Observe participation, persistence, and strategy use instead of assuming a cause for silence.
9. Change one classroom condition at a time and compare student responses.
10. Treat persistent avoidance as a pedagogical signal requiring support, not as a clinical diagnosis.
3.5 Theoretical Propositions
Proposition 1. When demanding text conditions, low perceived reading competence, and low-control
instructional experiences co-occur, students are more likely to display reading apprehension behaviors
(Bakkaloğlu & Pilten, 2023; Fitrawati et al., 2023; Miao & Vibulphol, 2021).
Proposition 2. Reading apprehension behaviors are expected to be associated with lower voluntary
engagement, thereby limiting opportunities for strategic processing and language input (Li & Gan, 2022;
Toste et al., 2020).
Proposition 3. Instruction that combines accessible texts, strategy scaffolds, meaningful choice, and
supportive collaboration is more likely to reduce avoidance than instruction relying only on performance
pressure (Anggia & Habók, 2024; Koné, 2023; Li et al., 2022).
Proposition 4. The strength and form of these relations in Ecuadorian B.G.E. classrooms must be tested
empirically; related Ecuadorian motivation and reading studies do not yet validate the complete model
(Andrade-Molina et al., 2022; Díaz Chávez et al., 2023; Soto et al., 2025).
3.6 Discussion
The Ecuadorian curriculum establishes reading as a central EFL skill, and three retained studies improve
the national contextualization. Andrade-Molina et al. (2022) show that ideal L2 self and learning
experience matter for motivated behavior in Ecuadorian high schools; Díaz Chávez et al. (2023) show
that reading instruction and practicum learning can be studied together; and Soto et al. (2025)
demonstrate that motivation research at Ecuadorian primary and secondary levels remains limited. None
measures the complete constellation of avoidance, frustration, self-efficacy, instructional climate, and
reading outcomes proposed here. Consequently, claims about B.G.E. remain theoretical propositions
rather than local causal estimates.
The revised evidence changes the article’s central argument in an important way. The question is not
whether one method “solves” reading apprehension, but how classroom conditions shape students’
pág. 2637
willingness and capacity to engage with text. This synthesis supports an integrated response: reduce
unnecessary linguistic barriers, teach how to work through difficulty, offer bounded choices, and
observe whether students’ participation changes. That is more defensible than attributing avoidance to
a fixed trait or to motivation alone.
The evidence also reveals tensions. Strategy interventions can improve comprehension without
immediate motivational change (Li et al., 2022). Extensive and collaborative reading can promote
engagement, but their implementation depends on text availability, teacher preparation, time, and local
norms (Anggia & Habók, 2024; Koné, 2023). Early literacy and home environments matter (Romero-
González et al., 2023; van der Sande, Dobber, et al., 2023), but secondary teachers cannot retroactively
change them. Their realistic leverage lies in current classroom routines and in referral or family-
engagement systems where feasible.
For pre-service EFL teachers, the practical implication is to observe behavior before assigning a cause.
Silence, rushed completion, or off-task behavior may stem from vocabulary load, fear of error, unclear
task goals, lack of relevance, or a combination. A practicum protocol can ask student-teachers to record
the text’s difficulty, the support offered, the participation pattern, and student explanations. Such
observations would create a defensible local baseline for later intervention research.
The scientific contribution is therefore a bounded synthesis rather than a new prevalence claim.
Conceptually, it connects affective, motivational, developmental, and instructional evidence in a three-
variable model while preserving the distinction between reading apprehension and reading anxiety.
Methodologically, it relates the 214–51–25 selection process to the thematic analysis and identifies
where evidence is direct, indirect, or contextual. Practically, it translates the model into observable
decisions for practicum without treating silence or avoidance as proof of a fixed learner trait.
Limitations of the review.
This is an integrative bibliographic review, not a registered systematic review or meta-analysis; the
selection flow documents the review process but does not estimate pooled effects.
The search was restricted to publications dated 2020–2026 and written in English or Spanish. Relevant
work outside that period or in other languages may have been missed.
willingness and capacity to engage with text. This synthesis supports an integrated response: reduce
unnecessary linguistic barriers, teach how to work through difficulty, offer bounded choices, and
observe whether students’ participation changes. That is more defensible than attributing avoidance to
a fixed trait or to motivation alone.
The evidence also reveals tensions. Strategy interventions can improve comprehension without
immediate motivational change (Li et al., 2022). Extensive and collaborative reading can promote
engagement, but their implementation depends on text availability, teacher preparation, time, and local
norms (Anggia & Habók, 2024; Koné, 2023). Early literacy and home environments matter (Romero-
González et al., 2023; van der Sande, Dobber, et al., 2023), but secondary teachers cannot retroactively
change them. Their realistic leverage lies in current classroom routines and in referral or family-
engagement systems where feasible.
For pre-service EFL teachers, the practical implication is to observe behavior before assigning a cause.
Silence, rushed completion, or off-task behavior may stem from vocabulary load, fear of error, unclear
task goals, lack of relevance, or a combination. A practicum protocol can ask student-teachers to record
the text’s difficulty, the support offered, the participation pattern, and student explanations. Such
observations would create a defensible local baseline for later intervention research.
The scientific contribution is therefore a bounded synthesis rather than a new prevalence claim.
Conceptually, it connects affective, motivational, developmental, and instructional evidence in a three-
variable model while preserving the distinction between reading apprehension and reading anxiety.
Methodologically, it relates the 214–51–25 selection process to the thematic analysis and identifies
where evidence is direct, indirect, or contextual. Practically, it translates the model into observable
decisions for practicum without treating silence or avoidance as proof of a fixed learner trait.
Limitations of the review.
This is an integrative bibliographic review, not a registered systematic review or meta-analysis; the
selection flow documents the review process but does not estimate pooled effects.
The search was restricted to publications dated 2020–2026 and written in English or Spanish. Relevant
work outside that period or in other languages may have been missed.
pág. 2638
Grey literature, theses, dissertations, editorials, and conference abstracts were excluded from the
analytic corpus. This clarified the corpus but may have reduced coverage of emerging Ecuadorian work.
Most empirical evidence comes from non-Ecuadorian contexts, and several EFL studies involve
university learners. Transfer to B.G.E. requires local testing.
The historical search log preserved aggregate counts but not reliable database-by-database subtotals;
Google Scholar results are also less reproducible than indexed-database searches.
The term reading apprehension is a transparent pedagogical label used in this article; it is not a
standardized measurement construct. Related evidence on reading anxiety, motivation, and self-efficacy
should not be treated as interchangeable.
Publication bias, search vocabulary, and the geographic concentration of studies in Asian, African, and
European settings may have limited the visibility of Latin American evidence.
4. CONCLUSIONS
In response to the general objective, reading apprehension is best understood as a context-sensitive
pattern produced by the interaction of learner beliefs, text demands, prior literacy experience, and
instructional climate. It is a pedagogical label for observable classroom behavior, not a clinical
diagnosis, and the international evidence cannot establish its prevalence in Ecuador. The proposed A–
B–C model explains how antecedent conditions may be expressed as avoidance or low willingness and,
in turn, reduce engagement and opportunities for EFL development.
In response to the first specific objective and RQ1, the most defensible contributing factors are low
reading self-efficacy, weak task value, unfamiliar vocabulary or content, repeated experiences of
difficulty, low-control or error-focused instruction, and limited prior literacy support. These factors
interact; none should be treated as sufficient proof that a student is apprehensive. Ecuadorian motivation
evidence supports the importance of positive learning experience and learner agency, but reading-
specific causal relations remain untested.
In response to RQ2, apprehension is expected to reduce participation, persistence, strategic processing,
and sustained exposure to English texts, thereby constraining comprehension and broader language-
learning opportunities. The evidence is strongest for associations among motivation, anxiety,
Grey literature, theses, dissertations, editorials, and conference abstracts were excluded from the
analytic corpus. This clarified the corpus but may have reduced coverage of emerging Ecuadorian work.
Most empirical evidence comes from non-Ecuadorian contexts, and several EFL studies involve
university learners. Transfer to B.G.E. requires local testing.
The historical search log preserved aggregate counts but not reliable database-by-database subtotals;
Google Scholar results are also less reproducible than indexed-database searches.
The term reading apprehension is a transparent pedagogical label used in this article; it is not a
standardized measurement construct. Related evidence on reading anxiety, motivation, and self-efficacy
should not be treated as interchangeable.
Publication bias, search vocabulary, and the geographic concentration of studies in Asian, African, and
European settings may have limited the visibility of Latin American evidence.
4. CONCLUSIONS
In response to the general objective, reading apprehension is best understood as a context-sensitive
pattern produced by the interaction of learner beliefs, text demands, prior literacy experience, and
instructional climate. It is a pedagogical label for observable classroom behavior, not a clinical
diagnosis, and the international evidence cannot establish its prevalence in Ecuador. The proposed A–
B–C model explains how antecedent conditions may be expressed as avoidance or low willingness and,
in turn, reduce engagement and opportunities for EFL development.
In response to the first specific objective and RQ1, the most defensible contributing factors are low
reading self-efficacy, weak task value, unfamiliar vocabulary or content, repeated experiences of
difficulty, low-control or error-focused instruction, and limited prior literacy support. These factors
interact; none should be treated as sufficient proof that a student is apprehensive. Ecuadorian motivation
evidence supports the importance of positive learning experience and learner agency, but reading-
specific causal relations remain untested.
In response to RQ2, apprehension is expected to reduce participation, persistence, strategic processing,
and sustained exposure to English texts, thereby constraining comprehension and broader language-
learning opportunities. The evidence is strongest for associations among motivation, anxiety,
pág. 2639
engagement, and reading outcomes. It does not justify a national effect size, and improvement in
comprehension does not necessarily produce immediate motivational change.
In response to the second specific objective and RQ3, the literature most consistently supports a
combined approach: accessible texts and bounded choice, explicit reading-strategy scaffolds,
collaborative reading, supportive low-stakes feedback, and iterative lesson-study or practicum
reflection. No single strategy can be ranked as universally most effective because designs, samples,
durations, and outcomes differ. Effectiveness in Ecuadorian B.G.E. classrooms must be demonstrated
through local implementation data.
The article’s scientific contribution is a focused synthesis that separates direct evidence, transferable
mechanisms, and Ecuadorian inference; converts hypotheses into four theoretical propositions; and
derives a model that can guide observation and future testing. For practice, the model supports brief
cycles in which pre-service teachers document task conditions and student responses before and after a
bounded instructional change. Future Ecuadorian studies should use longitudinal and mixed-methods
designs, validated affective measures, student voice, and transparent reporting of school type, English
exposure, text difficulty, and implementation fidelity.
REFERENCES
Andrade-Molina, C., Bastidas-Amador, G., Posso-Yépez, M., & Alvarez Llerena, C. L. (2022).
Exploring the L2 motivational self-system in Ecuador: A questionnaire study in secondary
school/high school contexts. RLA. Revista de Lingüística Teórica y Aplicada, 60(2), 39–62.
https://doi.org/10.29393/RLA60-10ELCC40010
Anggia, H., & Habók, A. (2024). Reading motivation and achievement in online extensive reading of
English text: A systematic review. MEXTESOL Journal, 48(3), 1–13.
https://doi.org/10.61871/mj.v48n3-12
Bakkaloğlu, S., & Pilten, G. (2023). Examining the relationship between reading motivation and reading
comprehension self-efficacy perception. International Journal of Psychology and Educational
Studies, 10(1), 144–158. https://doi.org/10.52380/ijpes.2023.10.1.909
Díaz Chávez, A. del C., Moreno Ordoñez, R. P., & Troya Sánchez, M. E. (2023). Improving reading
comprehension through lesson study among tenth-grade students at a public school in the city
engagement, and reading outcomes. It does not justify a national effect size, and improvement in
comprehension does not necessarily produce immediate motivational change.
In response to the second specific objective and RQ3, the literature most consistently supports a
combined approach: accessible texts and bounded choice, explicit reading-strategy scaffolds,
collaborative reading, supportive low-stakes feedback, and iterative lesson-study or practicum
reflection. No single strategy can be ranked as universally most effective because designs, samples,
durations, and outcomes differ. Effectiveness in Ecuadorian B.G.E. classrooms must be demonstrated
through local implementation data.
The article’s scientific contribution is a focused synthesis that separates direct evidence, transferable
mechanisms, and Ecuadorian inference; converts hypotheses into four theoretical propositions; and
derives a model that can guide observation and future testing. For practice, the model supports brief
cycles in which pre-service teachers document task conditions and student responses before and after a
bounded instructional change. Future Ecuadorian studies should use longitudinal and mixed-methods
designs, validated affective measures, student voice, and transparent reporting of school type, English
exposure, text difficulty, and implementation fidelity.
REFERENCES
Andrade-Molina, C., Bastidas-Amador, G., Posso-Yépez, M., & Alvarez Llerena, C. L. (2022).
Exploring the L2 motivational self-system in Ecuador: A questionnaire study in secondary
school/high school contexts. RLA. Revista de Lingüística Teórica y Aplicada, 60(2), 39–62.
https://doi.org/10.29393/RLA60-10ELCC40010
Anggia, H., & Habók, A. (2024). Reading motivation and achievement in online extensive reading of
English text: A systematic review. MEXTESOL Journal, 48(3), 1–13.
https://doi.org/10.61871/mj.v48n3-12
Bakkaloğlu, S., & Pilten, G. (2023). Examining the relationship between reading motivation and reading
comprehension self-efficacy perception. International Journal of Psychology and Educational
Studies, 10(1), 144–158. https://doi.org/10.52380/ijpes.2023.10.1.909
Díaz Chávez, A. del C., Moreno Ordoñez, R. P., & Troya Sánchez, M. E. (2023). Improving reading
comprehension through lesson study among tenth-grade students at a public school in the city
pág. 2640
of Loja during 2021–2022 school year. Ciencia Latina Revista Científica Multidisciplinar, 7(2),
6861–6876. https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v7i2.5831
Fitrawati, F., Kamil, I., & Perrodin, D. D. (2023). Foreign language reading anxiety as experienced by
EFL students of a state university in Padang, Indonesia. English Language Teaching
Educational Journal, 6(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.12928/eltej.v6i1.7716
Gebremariam, H. T., & Weldeyohannes, M. Z. (2025). Cultivating students’ reading skills: Inspiring
reading comprehension and motivation through critical reading strategies. SAGE Open, 15(3).
https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251367189
Ismail, S. M., Wang, C., & Jamalyar, R. (2023). The impact of task-based instruction on learners’
reading comprehension, L2 grit, anxiety, and motivation for L2 reading. Asian-Pacific Journal
of Second and Foreign Language Education, 8, Article 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-023-
00216-2
Jarssa, A. B., Bushisso, E. W., & Olamo, T. G. (2025). Effects of integrated reading approach on EFL
secondary school students: Enhancing reading self-efficacy and motivation. SAGE Open, 15(3).
https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251370451
Koné, K. (2023). Reading circles: Triggers for increased engagement of EFL learners in extensive
reading. TESL-EJ, 27(3). https://doi.org/10.55593/ej.27107a2
Li, H., & Gan, Z. (2022). Reading motivation, self-regulated reading strategies and English vocabulary
knowledge: Which most predicted students’ English reading comprehension? Frontiers in
Psychology, 13, Article 1041870. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1041870
Li, H., Gan, Z., Leung, S. O., & An, Z. (2022). The impact of reading strategy instruction on reading
comprehension, strategy use, motivation, and self-efficacy in Chinese university EFL students.
SAGE Open, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221086659
Li, H., Wang, C., Gan, Z., & Hoi, C. K. W. (2024). Reading motivation and learning strategies among
Chinese EFL learners. Psychology in the Schools, 61(5), 1747–1765.
https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.23135
of Loja during 2021–2022 school year. Ciencia Latina Revista Científica Multidisciplinar, 7(2),
6861–6876. https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v7i2.5831
Fitrawati, F., Kamil, I., & Perrodin, D. D. (2023). Foreign language reading anxiety as experienced by
EFL students of a state university in Padang, Indonesia. English Language Teaching
Educational Journal, 6(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.12928/eltej.v6i1.7716
Gebremariam, H. T., & Weldeyohannes, M. Z. (2025). Cultivating students’ reading skills: Inspiring
reading comprehension and motivation through critical reading strategies. SAGE Open, 15(3).
https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251367189
Ismail, S. M., Wang, C., & Jamalyar, R. (2023). The impact of task-based instruction on learners’
reading comprehension, L2 grit, anxiety, and motivation for L2 reading. Asian-Pacific Journal
of Second and Foreign Language Education, 8, Article 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-023-
00216-2
Jarssa, A. B., Bushisso, E. W., & Olamo, T. G. (2025). Effects of integrated reading approach on EFL
secondary school students: Enhancing reading self-efficacy and motivation. SAGE Open, 15(3).
https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251370451
Koné, K. (2023). Reading circles: Triggers for increased engagement of EFL learners in extensive
reading. TESL-EJ, 27(3). https://doi.org/10.55593/ej.27107a2
Li, H., & Gan, Z. (2022). Reading motivation, self-regulated reading strategies and English vocabulary
knowledge: Which most predicted students’ English reading comprehension? Frontiers in
Psychology, 13, Article 1041870. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1041870
Li, H., Gan, Z., Leung, S. O., & An, Z. (2022). The impact of reading strategy instruction on reading
comprehension, strategy use, motivation, and self-efficacy in Chinese university EFL students.
SAGE Open, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221086659
Li, H., Wang, C., Gan, Z., & Hoi, C. K. W. (2024). Reading motivation and learning strategies among
Chinese EFL learners. Psychology in the Schools, 61(5), 1747–1765.
https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.23135
pág. 2641
Maipoka, S.-A., & Soontornwipast, K. (2021). Effects of intensive and extensive reading instruction on
Thai primary students’ English reading ability. LEARN Journal: Language Education and
Acquisition Research Network, 14(1), 146–175.
Mardianti, N., Wijayati, P. H., & Murtadho, N. (2021). The correlation between students’ reading
anxiety and their reading comprehension in ESP context. International Journal of Language
Education, 5(2), 15–29. https://doi.org/10.26858/ijole.v5i2.15440
Miao, Q. Q., & Vibulphol, J. (2021). English as a foreign language reading anxiety of Chinese university
students. International Education Studies, 14(3), 64–75. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v14n3p64
Ministerio de Educación. (2016). English as a foreign language for Subnivel Superior of Educación
General Básica. https://educacion.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2016/08/EFL-for-
Subnivel-Superior-of-EGB-ok.pdf
Romero-González, M., Lavigne-Cerván, R., Gamboa-Ternero, S., Rodríguez-Infante, G., Juárez-Ruiz
de Mier, R., & Romero-Pérez, J. F. (2023). Active home literacy environment: Parents’ and
teachers’ expectations of its influence on affective relationships at home, reading performance,
and reading motivation in children aged 6 to 8 years. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, Article
1261662. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1261662
Soto, S. T., Espinosa Cevallos, L. F., & Rojas Encalada, M. A. (2025). Studies on motivation and EFL
teaching and learning in Ecuador. Revista InveCom, 5(1), Article e501006.
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10892449
Stander, M. (2022). The relationship between language learning strategies, affective factors and
language proficiency. Language Learning in Higher Education, 12(2), 391–408.
https://doi.org/10.1515/cercles-2022-2053
Tegmark, M., Alatalo, T., Vinterek, M., & Winberg, M. (2022). What motivates students to read at
school? Student views on reading practices in middle and lower-secondary school. Journal of
Research in Reading, 45(1), 100–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12386
Toste, J. R., Didion, L., Peng, P., Filderman, M. J., & McClelland, A. M. (2020). A meta-analytic review
of the relations between motivation and reading achievement for K–12 students. Review of
Educational Research, 90(3), 420–456. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654320919352
Maipoka, S.-A., & Soontornwipast, K. (2021). Effects of intensive and extensive reading instruction on
Thai primary students’ English reading ability. LEARN Journal: Language Education and
Acquisition Research Network, 14(1), 146–175.
Mardianti, N., Wijayati, P. H., & Murtadho, N. (2021). The correlation between students’ reading
anxiety and their reading comprehension in ESP context. International Journal of Language
Education, 5(2), 15–29. https://doi.org/10.26858/ijole.v5i2.15440
Miao, Q. Q., & Vibulphol, J. (2021). English as a foreign language reading anxiety of Chinese university
students. International Education Studies, 14(3), 64–75. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v14n3p64
Ministerio de Educación. (2016). English as a foreign language for Subnivel Superior of Educación
General Básica. https://educacion.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2016/08/EFL-for-
Subnivel-Superior-of-EGB-ok.pdf
Romero-González, M., Lavigne-Cerván, R., Gamboa-Ternero, S., Rodríguez-Infante, G., Juárez-Ruiz
de Mier, R., & Romero-Pérez, J. F. (2023). Active home literacy environment: Parents’ and
teachers’ expectations of its influence on affective relationships at home, reading performance,
and reading motivation in children aged 6 to 8 years. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, Article
1261662. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1261662
Soto, S. T., Espinosa Cevallos, L. F., & Rojas Encalada, M. A. (2025). Studies on motivation and EFL
teaching and learning in Ecuador. Revista InveCom, 5(1), Article e501006.
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10892449
Stander, M. (2022). The relationship between language learning strategies, affective factors and
language proficiency. Language Learning in Higher Education, 12(2), 391–408.
https://doi.org/10.1515/cercles-2022-2053
Tegmark, M., Alatalo, T., Vinterek, M., & Winberg, M. (2022). What motivates students to read at
school? Student views on reading practices in middle and lower-secondary school. Journal of
Research in Reading, 45(1), 100–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12386
Toste, J. R., Didion, L., Peng, P., Filderman, M. J., & McClelland, A. M. (2020). A meta-analytic review
of the relations between motivation and reading achievement for K–12 students. Review of
Educational Research, 90(3), 420–456. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654320919352
pág. 2642
Valizadeh, M. (2021). The effect of reading comprehension strategies instruction on EFL learners’
reading anxiety level. Shanlax International Journal of Education, 9(S1), 53–58.
https://doi.org/10.34293/education.v9iS1-May.3999
van der Sande, L., Dobber, M., van Schaik, J. E., & van Steensel, R. (2023). Attitudes towards reading
amongst kindergarten and Grade 1 children. European Early Childhood Education Research
Journal, 31(3), 399–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2022.2108096
van der Sande, L., van Steensel, R., Fikrat-Wevers, S., & Arends, L. (2023). Effectiveness of
interventions that foster reading motivation: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review,
35, Article 21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09719-3
Zhang, X., & Kim, H.-J. (2025). Motivational pathways from perceived teacher support to student
engagement in EFL classes. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, Article 1677994.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1677994
Zhou, S., & Zhang, Y. (2025). Developmental trajectories of and reciprocal relationships between
Chinese university students’ foreign language reading self-efficacy and reading strategy use.
Frontiers in Psychology, 16, Article 1512098. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1512098
Valizadeh, M. (2021). The effect of reading comprehension strategies instruction on EFL learners’
reading anxiety level. Shanlax International Journal of Education, 9(S1), 53–58.
https://doi.org/10.34293/education.v9iS1-May.3999
van der Sande, L., Dobber, M., van Schaik, J. E., & van Steensel, R. (2023). Attitudes towards reading
amongst kindergarten and Grade 1 children. European Early Childhood Education Research
Journal, 31(3), 399–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2022.2108096
van der Sande, L., van Steensel, R., Fikrat-Wevers, S., & Arends, L. (2023). Effectiveness of
interventions that foster reading motivation: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review,
35, Article 21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09719-3
Zhang, X., & Kim, H.-J. (2025). Motivational pathways from perceived teacher support to student
engagement in EFL classes. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, Article 1677994.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1677994
Zhou, S., & Zhang, Y. (2025). Developmental trajectories of and reciprocal relationships between
Chinese university students’ foreign language reading self-efficacy and reading strategy use.
Frontiers in Psychology, 16, Article 1512098. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1512098