pág. 3795
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANXIETY AMONG EFL
LEARNERS IN MANABÍ
LA ANSIEDAD ANTE EL IDIOMA EXTRANJERO ENTRE LOS
ESTUDIANTES DE INGLÉS COMO LENGUA EXTRANJERA
EN MANABÍ
Luis Leandro Alcívar Cedeño
Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí, Ecuador
Lic. Cintya Maribel Zambrano Zambrano, Mgs.
Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí, Ecuador
pág. 3796
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v10i4.25394
Foreign Language Anxiety among EFL learners in Manabí
Luis Leandro Alcívar Cedeño1
luisl.alcivar@pg.uleam.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0009-0009-6013-7686
Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí,
Ecuador
Lic. Cintya Maribel Zambrano Zambrano,
Mgs.
cintya.zambrano@uleam.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0129-9134
Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí,
Ecuador
ABSTRACT
The present study examines the relationship between foreign language anxiety and academic
achievement among university English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. This context is
particularly relevant given the increasing reliance on online education, which introduces new challenges
and opportunities that may influence learners’ emotional experiences. A mixed-methods design was
employed in order to obtain both quantitative and qualitative insights into students’ levels of anxiety and
their perceptions of the learning environment. A mixed-methods design was employed in order to obtain
both quantitative and qualitative insights into students’ levels of anxiety and their perceptions of the
learning environment. Quantitative data were collected using the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety
Scale (FLCAS), a widely validated instrument developed by Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986), while
qualitative data were obtained through open-ended survey responses. A total of 168 undergraduate
students participated in the study. The results revealed a moderate overall level of anxiety (M = 3.27,
SD = 0.91), with the majority of students reporting moderate (58.9%) and high (33.3%) levels of anxiety.
Item-level analysis indicated that communication apprehension and fear of negative evaluation were the
most significant sources of anxiety. The study highlights the importance of implementing pedagogical
strategies that address learners’ emotional needs, foster supportive learning environments, and reduce
anxiety-related barriers to participation and performance.
Keywords: foreign language anxiety, academic achievement, EFL learners, online education, and
mixed-methods design.
1 Autor principal
Correspondencia: luisl.alcivar@pg.uleam.edu.ec
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v10i4.25394
Foreign Language Anxiety among EFL learners in Manabí
Luis Leandro Alcívar Cedeño1
luisl.alcivar@pg.uleam.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0009-0009-6013-7686
Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí,
Ecuador
Lic. Cintya Maribel Zambrano Zambrano,
Mgs.
cintya.zambrano@uleam.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0129-9134
Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí,
Ecuador
ABSTRACT
The present study examines the relationship between foreign language anxiety and academic
achievement among university English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. This context is
particularly relevant given the increasing reliance on online education, which introduces new challenges
and opportunities that may influence learners’ emotional experiences. A mixed-methods design was
employed in order to obtain both quantitative and qualitative insights into students’ levels of anxiety and
their perceptions of the learning environment. A mixed-methods design was employed in order to obtain
both quantitative and qualitative insights into students’ levels of anxiety and their perceptions of the
learning environment. Quantitative data were collected using the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety
Scale (FLCAS), a widely validated instrument developed by Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986), while
qualitative data were obtained through open-ended survey responses. A total of 168 undergraduate
students participated in the study. The results revealed a moderate overall level of anxiety (M = 3.27,
SD = 0.91), with the majority of students reporting moderate (58.9%) and high (33.3%) levels of anxiety.
Item-level analysis indicated that communication apprehension and fear of negative evaluation were the
most significant sources of anxiety. The study highlights the importance of implementing pedagogical
strategies that address learners’ emotional needs, foster supportive learning environments, and reduce
anxiety-related barriers to participation and performance.
Keywords: foreign language anxiety, academic achievement, EFL learners, online education, and
mixed-methods design.
1 Autor principal
Correspondencia: luisl.alcivar@pg.uleam.edu.ec
pág. 3797
La ansiedad ante el idioma extranjero entre los estudiantes de inglés como
lengua extranjera en Manabí
RESUMEN
El presente estudio analiza la relación entre la ansiedad ante una lengua extranjera y el rendimiento
académico entre los estudiantes universitarios de inglés como lengua extranjera (EFL). Este contexto
reviste especial relevancia dada la creciente dependencia de la educación en línea, que plantea nuevos
retos y oportunidades que pueden influir en las experiencias emocionales de los estudiantes. Se empleó
un diseño de métodos mixtos con el fin de obtener información tanto cuantitativa como cualitativa sobre
los niveles de ansiedad de los estudiantes y sus percepciones del entorno de aprendizaje. Se empleó un
diseño de métodos mixtos con el fin de obtener información tanto cuantitativa como cualitativa sobre
los niveles de ansiedad de los estudiantes y sus percepciones del entorno de aprendizaje. Los datos
cuantitativos se recopilaron mediante la Escala de Ansiedad en el Aula de Lenguas Extranjeras
(FLCAS), un instrumento ampliamente validado desarrollado por Horwitz, Horwitz y Cope (1986),
mientras que los datos cualitativos se obtuvieron a través de respuestas abiertas a una encuesta. En el
estudio participaron un total de 168 estudiantes universitarios. Los resultados revelaron un nivel general
moderado de ansiedad (M = 3,27; DE = 0,91), y la mayoría de los estudiantes manifestaron niveles
moderados (58,9 %) y altos (33,3 %) de ansiedad. El análisis a nivel de ítem indicó que la aprensión
ante la comunicación y el miedo a la evaluación negativa eran las fuentes más significativas de ansiedad.
El estudio destaca la importancia de aplicar estrategias pedagógicas que aborden las necesidades
emocionales de los alumnos, fomenten entornos de aprendizaje que les brinden apoyo y reduzcan las
barreras relacionadas con la ansiedad que dificultan la participación y el rendimiento.
Palabras clave: ansiedad ante el aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera, rendimiento académico,
estudiantes de inglés como lengua extranjera, educación en línea y diseño de métodos mixtos
Artículo recibido 20 mayo 2026
Aceptado para publicación: 20 junio 2026
La ansiedad ante el idioma extranjero entre los estudiantes de inglés como
lengua extranjera en Manabí
RESUMEN
El presente estudio analiza la relación entre la ansiedad ante una lengua extranjera y el rendimiento
académico entre los estudiantes universitarios de inglés como lengua extranjera (EFL). Este contexto
reviste especial relevancia dada la creciente dependencia de la educación en línea, que plantea nuevos
retos y oportunidades que pueden influir en las experiencias emocionales de los estudiantes. Se empleó
un diseño de métodos mixtos con el fin de obtener información tanto cuantitativa como cualitativa sobre
los niveles de ansiedad de los estudiantes y sus percepciones del entorno de aprendizaje. Se empleó un
diseño de métodos mixtos con el fin de obtener información tanto cuantitativa como cualitativa sobre
los niveles de ansiedad de los estudiantes y sus percepciones del entorno de aprendizaje. Los datos
cuantitativos se recopilaron mediante la Escala de Ansiedad en el Aula de Lenguas Extranjeras
(FLCAS), un instrumento ampliamente validado desarrollado por Horwitz, Horwitz y Cope (1986),
mientras que los datos cualitativos se obtuvieron a través de respuestas abiertas a una encuesta. En el
estudio participaron un total de 168 estudiantes universitarios. Los resultados revelaron un nivel general
moderado de ansiedad (M = 3,27; DE = 0,91), y la mayoría de los estudiantes manifestaron niveles
moderados (58,9 %) y altos (33,3 %) de ansiedad. El análisis a nivel de ítem indicó que la aprensión
ante la comunicación y el miedo a la evaluación negativa eran las fuentes más significativas de ansiedad.
El estudio destaca la importancia de aplicar estrategias pedagógicas que aborden las necesidades
emocionales de los alumnos, fomenten entornos de aprendizaje que les brinden apoyo y reduzcan las
barreras relacionadas con la ansiedad que dificultan la participación y el rendimiento.
Palabras clave: ansiedad ante el aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera, rendimiento académico,
estudiantes de inglés como lengua extranjera, educación en línea y diseño de métodos mixtos
Artículo recibido 20 mayo 2026
Aceptado para publicación: 20 junio 2026
pág. 3798
INTRODUCTION
Over the past several decades, the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) has undergone a
significant transformation, evolving from a predominantly structural and grammar-focused discipline
into a multifaceted area of study that considers cognitive, social, and emotional dimensions of learning.
Early approaches to language teaching emphasized the acquisition of grammatical rules and vocabulary,
often neglecting the role of affective variables in shaping learners’ experiences. However, contemporary
research has demonstrated that emotional factors, such as motivation, attitudes, and anxiety, play a
crucial role in determining the success of language learning (MacIntyre et al., 2020; Mercer & Dörnyei,
2020).
Among these affective variables, foreign language anxiety (FLA) has received considerable attention
due to its pervasive impact on learners’ performance and engagement. Foreign language anxiety is
defined as a situation-specific form of anxiety that arises in contexts where individuals are required to
use a language that is not their native language, particularly in situations involving communication,
evaluation, and interaction with others (Horwitz et al., 1986). This type of anxiety is characterized by
feelings of tension, nervousness, apprehension, and self-doubt, which can significantly interfere with
the learning process.
One of the most important aspects of foreign language anxiety is its multidimensional nature. According
to Horwitz et al. (1986), FLA consists of three primary components: communication apprehension, fear
of negative evaluation, and test anxiety. Communication apprehension refers to the fear or discomfort
associated with speaking in the target language, especially in front of others. Fear of negative evaluation
involves concern about being judged, criticized, or evaluated unfavorably by peers or instructors. Test
anxiety relates to the stress and nervousness experienced during examinations and assessments.
The impact of foreign language anxiety on cognitive processes has been extensively documented in the
literature. Anxiety has been shown to interfere with attention, reduce working memory capacity, and
hinder the retrieval of linguistic information (Li, 2022; Zhang, 2022). When learners experience anxiety,
their cognitive resources are divided between managing their emotional state and performing the
language task. As a result, they may struggle to concentrate, process information effectively, and produce
INTRODUCTION
Over the past several decades, the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) has undergone a
significant transformation, evolving from a predominantly structural and grammar-focused discipline
into a multifaceted area of study that considers cognitive, social, and emotional dimensions of learning.
Early approaches to language teaching emphasized the acquisition of grammatical rules and vocabulary,
often neglecting the role of affective variables in shaping learners’ experiences. However, contemporary
research has demonstrated that emotional factors, such as motivation, attitudes, and anxiety, play a
crucial role in determining the success of language learning (MacIntyre et al., 2020; Mercer & Dörnyei,
2020).
Among these affective variables, foreign language anxiety (FLA) has received considerable attention
due to its pervasive impact on learners’ performance and engagement. Foreign language anxiety is
defined as a situation-specific form of anxiety that arises in contexts where individuals are required to
use a language that is not their native language, particularly in situations involving communication,
evaluation, and interaction with others (Horwitz et al., 1986). This type of anxiety is characterized by
feelings of tension, nervousness, apprehension, and self-doubt, which can significantly interfere with
the learning process.
One of the most important aspects of foreign language anxiety is its multidimensional nature. According
to Horwitz et al. (1986), FLA consists of three primary components: communication apprehension, fear
of negative evaluation, and test anxiety. Communication apprehension refers to the fear or discomfort
associated with speaking in the target language, especially in front of others. Fear of negative evaluation
involves concern about being judged, criticized, or evaluated unfavorably by peers or instructors. Test
anxiety relates to the stress and nervousness experienced during examinations and assessments.
The impact of foreign language anxiety on cognitive processes has been extensively documented in the
literature. Anxiety has been shown to interfere with attention, reduce working memory capacity, and
hinder the retrieval of linguistic information (Li, 2022; Zhang, 2022). When learners experience anxiety,
their cognitive resources are divided between managing their emotional state and performing the
language task. As a result, they may struggle to concentrate, process information effectively, and produce
pág. 3799
accurate language output. This cognitive interference often leads to lower performance, even among
learners who possess adequate linguistic competence.
In addition to its cognitive effects, foreign language anxiety also has important behavioral consequences.
Students who experience high levels of anxiety often adopt avoidance strategies, such as refraining from
participating in class discussions, avoiding eye contact, or choosing not to volunteer answers. These
behaviors limit opportunities for practice and interaction, which are essential for language development.
Over time, this lack of engagement can lead to slower progress, reduced confidence, and lower academic
achievement (Pawlak & Mystkowska-Wiertelak, 2021).
A substantial body of research has demonstrated a negative relationship between foreign language
anxiety. Meta-analyses have consistently found that higher levels of anxiety are associated with lower
performance in language tasks and assessments (Teimouri et al., 2019; Botes et al., 2022; Saito et al.,
2023). These findings highlight the importance of addressing emotional factors in language education,
as they can significantly influence learning outcomes.
The social dimension of foreign language anxiety is another critical aspect that must be considered.
Language learning is inherently a social process that involves interaction with others, including teachers
and peers. In this context, learners are often concerned about how they are perceived by others,
particularly when they are required to speak or perform in front of an audience. The fear of making
mistakes, being corrected, or being judged negatively can lead to increased anxiety, especially in
environments where evaluation is emphasized.
In recent years, the increasing use of virtual learning environments has introduced new challenges and
complexities to the study of foreign language anxiety. Online education has become more prevalent due
to technological advancements and global circumstances, offering flexibility and accessibility to
learners. However, these environments also present unique challenges that may exacerbate anxiety. One
of the most significant challenges associated with virtual learning is the increased sense of exposure that
learners may experience. The use of cameras and microphones can make students feel more self-
conscious, particularly when they are aware that they are being observed by others. This heightened
self-awareness can intensify feelings of anxiety, especially for learners who lack confidence in their
language abilities (Hampel & Stickler, 2021; Wang & Zhan, 2020).
accurate language output. This cognitive interference often leads to lower performance, even among
learners who possess adequate linguistic competence.
In addition to its cognitive effects, foreign language anxiety also has important behavioral consequences.
Students who experience high levels of anxiety often adopt avoidance strategies, such as refraining from
participating in class discussions, avoiding eye contact, or choosing not to volunteer answers. These
behaviors limit opportunities for practice and interaction, which are essential for language development.
Over time, this lack of engagement can lead to slower progress, reduced confidence, and lower academic
achievement (Pawlak & Mystkowska-Wiertelak, 2021).
A substantial body of research has demonstrated a negative relationship between foreign language
anxiety. Meta-analyses have consistently found that higher levels of anxiety are associated with lower
performance in language tasks and assessments (Teimouri et al., 2019; Botes et al., 2022; Saito et al.,
2023). These findings highlight the importance of addressing emotional factors in language education,
as they can significantly influence learning outcomes.
The social dimension of foreign language anxiety is another critical aspect that must be considered.
Language learning is inherently a social process that involves interaction with others, including teachers
and peers. In this context, learners are often concerned about how they are perceived by others,
particularly when they are required to speak or perform in front of an audience. The fear of making
mistakes, being corrected, or being judged negatively can lead to increased anxiety, especially in
environments where evaluation is emphasized.
In recent years, the increasing use of virtual learning environments has introduced new challenges and
complexities to the study of foreign language anxiety. Online education has become more prevalent due
to technological advancements and global circumstances, offering flexibility and accessibility to
learners. However, these environments also present unique challenges that may exacerbate anxiety. One
of the most significant challenges associated with virtual learning is the increased sense of exposure that
learners may experience. The use of cameras and microphones can make students feel more self-
conscious, particularly when they are aware that they are being observed by others. This heightened
self-awareness can intensify feelings of anxiety, especially for learners who lack confidence in their
language abilities (Hampel & Stickler, 2021; Wang & Zhan, 2020).
pág. 3800
Despite the growing body of research on foreign language anxiety, there is still limited evidence focusing
specifically on virtual EFL contexts in Latin America, particularly in Ecuador. This gap in literature
highlights the need for context-specific research that considers the unique characteristics and challenges
of these environments. Specifically, the study aims to determine the levels of anxiety in foreign language
learners in Manabi and it is guided by the following research questions that are essential to the process
of the study: what are the trends of foreign language anxiety in EFL learners?, what is the state of the
dimensions of anxiety in the participants?, what are the trends of the dimensions of anxiety related to
the factor age?, and what are the trends of the dimensions of anxiety related to the factor sex?
Literature Review
Second Language Acquisition
Learning a new language involves physical, cognitive, social and psychological changes throughout the
process where those areas are interconnected and influenced during different stages of the learning
process. In addition, acquiring a second language is a significant aspect of the mother tongue that can
impact cognitive and social interactions obtaining meaningful and essential results. (Vigotsky, 1978).
Second Language Acquisition known as “SLA” is a comprehensive and progressive process in which
successful learners are required to balance their cognitive abilities with environmental demands aside
from sociocultural factors operate through mechanisms such as mediation, cognitive restructuring, and
identity negotiation, and they play an active role in shaping the linguistic development of learners and
enhancing their intercultural communicative effectiveness. (Park, et al. 2025).
The long-standing debate in SLA concerning whether language development is primarily driven by
innate linguistic mechanisms or by postnatal experience has gained renewed relevance in contemporary
foreign language learning contexts. Different research show an analysis that demonstrates acquired
environmental factors and exhibit clear explanatory advantages over innate factors under criteria of
explanatory coverage, empirical consistency, and pedagogical intervenability. (Kim, 2025). The findings
suggest that while innate capacities delimit the boundaries of language learning, environmental input is
acquired that plays the central and actionable role in shaping EFL development.
Furthermore, SLA is a multi-layered process encompassing linguistic, cognitive, social, and emotional
dimensions. Axmedova & Abduraxmanova (2025) in their paper concludes that no single theory fully
Despite the growing body of research on foreign language anxiety, there is still limited evidence focusing
specifically on virtual EFL contexts in Latin America, particularly in Ecuador. This gap in literature
highlights the need for context-specific research that considers the unique characteristics and challenges
of these environments. Specifically, the study aims to determine the levels of anxiety in foreign language
learners in Manabi and it is guided by the following research questions that are essential to the process
of the study: what are the trends of foreign language anxiety in EFL learners?, what is the state of the
dimensions of anxiety in the participants?, what are the trends of the dimensions of anxiety related to
the factor age?, and what are the trends of the dimensions of anxiety related to the factor sex?
Literature Review
Second Language Acquisition
Learning a new language involves physical, cognitive, social and psychological changes throughout the
process where those areas are interconnected and influenced during different stages of the learning
process. In addition, acquiring a second language is a significant aspect of the mother tongue that can
impact cognitive and social interactions obtaining meaningful and essential results. (Vigotsky, 1978).
Second Language Acquisition known as “SLA” is a comprehensive and progressive process in which
successful learners are required to balance their cognitive abilities with environmental demands aside
from sociocultural factors operate through mechanisms such as mediation, cognitive restructuring, and
identity negotiation, and they play an active role in shaping the linguistic development of learners and
enhancing their intercultural communicative effectiveness. (Park, et al. 2025).
The long-standing debate in SLA concerning whether language development is primarily driven by
innate linguistic mechanisms or by postnatal experience has gained renewed relevance in contemporary
foreign language learning contexts. Different research show an analysis that demonstrates acquired
environmental factors and exhibit clear explanatory advantages over innate factors under criteria of
explanatory coverage, empirical consistency, and pedagogical intervenability. (Kim, 2025). The findings
suggest that while innate capacities delimit the boundaries of language learning, environmental input is
acquired that plays the central and actionable role in shaping EFL development.
Furthermore, SLA is a multi-layered process encompassing linguistic, cognitive, social, and emotional
dimensions. Axmedova & Abduraxmanova (2025) in their paper concludes that no single theory fully
pág. 3801
explains SLA; instead, an integrative, interdisciplinary understanding is necessary to account for the
diverse pathways through which learners develop second language competence. Simultaneously, the
differences between acquisition that can be defined as an unconscious, natural process driven by
meaningful communication, and learning that is composed by a conscious process involving explicit
rule knowledge. In this aspect many authors has developed different theories and methodologies to study
those characteristics, such as Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis that further contends emotions such
as anxiety, motivation, and self-confidence can facilitate or impede the intake of comprehensible input,
which is why he advocates low-stress, engaging, and meaning-focused classrooms. (Krashen, 1988).
The application of the SLA has become a pivotal area of research within applied linguistics, focusing
on how structured pedagogical methods impact the ability of pupils to acquire a second language known
as L2. Many Theories like Stephen Krashen’s Input Hypothesis where learners acquire language in only
one way, by understanding messages that are slightly beyond their current level of competence
emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input and language slightly beyond the learner’s current
proficiency, while Swain’s Output Hypothesis stresses that producing language compels learners to
process it at a deeper level and notice gaps in their knowledge. The opportunities for learners to negotiate
meaning, ask questions, and receive feedback led to more vigorous acquisition, supporting task-based
and focus-on-form approaches within communicative classrooms (Quin, 2026).
Characteristics of SLA
It is evidenced that two main theories has been making an enormous impact on the educational area
where the input and output of a second language has been the foremost subject to study in order to obtain
better strategies and methods to incorporate a foreign language into different classes or institutions
which wants to improve their natural curriculum. The first one is the Input hypothesis that outlines five
distinct characteristics, asserting that the unconscious mind, located in our memory, plays a crucial role
in the formation and evolution of our native language as well as the learning of additional languages
over our lifetime, on condition that we receive appropriate stimuli. It is declared “The Input Hypothesis
is the central part of an overall theory of second language acquisition that consists of five hypotheses”
(Krashen, 1985:1). At the same time, the output is not just the result of learning; it is a necessary
condition for developing accuracy, consistency, and fluency, especially at the beginning of the learning
explains SLA; instead, an integrative, interdisciplinary understanding is necessary to account for the
diverse pathways through which learners develop second language competence. Simultaneously, the
differences between acquisition that can be defined as an unconscious, natural process driven by
meaningful communication, and learning that is composed by a conscious process involving explicit
rule knowledge. In this aspect many authors has developed different theories and methodologies to study
those characteristics, such as Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis that further contends emotions such
as anxiety, motivation, and self-confidence can facilitate or impede the intake of comprehensible input,
which is why he advocates low-stress, engaging, and meaning-focused classrooms. (Krashen, 1988).
The application of the SLA has become a pivotal area of research within applied linguistics, focusing
on how structured pedagogical methods impact the ability of pupils to acquire a second language known
as L2. Many Theories like Stephen Krashen’s Input Hypothesis where learners acquire language in only
one way, by understanding messages that are slightly beyond their current level of competence
emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input and language slightly beyond the learner’s current
proficiency, while Swain’s Output Hypothesis stresses that producing language compels learners to
process it at a deeper level and notice gaps in their knowledge. The opportunities for learners to negotiate
meaning, ask questions, and receive feedback led to more vigorous acquisition, supporting task-based
and focus-on-form approaches within communicative classrooms (Quin, 2026).
Characteristics of SLA
It is evidenced that two main theories has been making an enormous impact on the educational area
where the input and output of a second language has been the foremost subject to study in order to obtain
better strategies and methods to incorporate a foreign language into different classes or institutions
which wants to improve their natural curriculum. The first one is the Input hypothesis that outlines five
distinct characteristics, asserting that the unconscious mind, located in our memory, plays a crucial role
in the formation and evolution of our native language as well as the learning of additional languages
over our lifetime, on condition that we receive appropriate stimuli. It is declared “The Input Hypothesis
is the central part of an overall theory of second language acquisition that consists of five hypotheses”
(Krashen, 1985:1). At the same time, the output is not just the result of learning; it is a necessary
condition for developing accuracy, consistency, and fluency, especially at the beginning of the learning
pág. 3802
process. This hypothesis contains three main functions that are explained as the recognition of linguistic
problems related to the constant exposure of the target language, the construction of a well-formed
ability in students, and the control and internalization of the new language (Swain, 1995).
Second language acquisition is characteristically multidimensional, shaped by interacting linguistic,
cognitive, psychological, socio‑cultural, and technological factors rather than by any single mechanism.
Different research have consistently treated learner languages as an interlanguage consisting of a
systematic, dynamic, and variable system that develops over time and differs from both the first and
target languages. Besides, SLA is empirically organized around multiple linguistic levels, such as
morphosyntax, semantics, phonetics or phonology, and the four skills defined as speaking, listening,
writing, reading, often using psycholinguistic or neurophysiological methods such as eye‑tracking and
self‑paced reading to trace processing in real time. Across studies, a recurrent finding is that
comprehensive input, meaningful interaction, learner output, motivation, corrective feedback, cognition,
and learning context jointly contribute to successful L2 development, while individual differences for
instance, aptitude, working memory are instinctively helping explain why learners progress at different
rates and to different endpoints (Kholoud, 2026). Over the past decades, research in Second Language
Acquisition (SLA) has shifted from a purely cognitive perspective to a more comprehensive approach
that integrates emotional and psychological variables as central components of the learning process.
Within this framework, foreign language anxiety has emerged as a key factor that can either hinder or
facilitate language learning depending on how it is managed in the classroom.
Foreign Language Anxiety
Foreign language anxiety, known as FLA, is widely recognized as a substantial affective factor involved
in the acquisition of a foreign language, being a factor undermines cognitive performance, motivation
and retention in pupils of a second language. Scovel (1978) stated that anxiety is a cornerstone of
individual differences research in applied linguistics, being the first research to accomplish the term
“anxiety” inside the world of the education and the different strategies that were applied during that
time. Then, many studies were conducted in order to specify the FLA until the definition and concept it
is recognized nowadays. It is characterized as a contextually grounded and dynamic construct, with
distinct research moving toward person-centered methodology, cross-cultural and task-specific
process. This hypothesis contains three main functions that are explained as the recognition of linguistic
problems related to the constant exposure of the target language, the construction of a well-formed
ability in students, and the control and internalization of the new language (Swain, 1995).
Second language acquisition is characteristically multidimensional, shaped by interacting linguistic,
cognitive, psychological, socio‑cultural, and technological factors rather than by any single mechanism.
Different research have consistently treated learner languages as an interlanguage consisting of a
systematic, dynamic, and variable system that develops over time and differs from both the first and
target languages. Besides, SLA is empirically organized around multiple linguistic levels, such as
morphosyntax, semantics, phonetics or phonology, and the four skills defined as speaking, listening,
writing, reading, often using psycholinguistic or neurophysiological methods such as eye‑tracking and
self‑paced reading to trace processing in real time. Across studies, a recurrent finding is that
comprehensive input, meaningful interaction, learner output, motivation, corrective feedback, cognition,
and learning context jointly contribute to successful L2 development, while individual differences for
instance, aptitude, working memory are instinctively helping explain why learners progress at different
rates and to different endpoints (Kholoud, 2026). Over the past decades, research in Second Language
Acquisition (SLA) has shifted from a purely cognitive perspective to a more comprehensive approach
that integrates emotional and psychological variables as central components of the learning process.
Within this framework, foreign language anxiety has emerged as a key factor that can either hinder or
facilitate language learning depending on how it is managed in the classroom.
Foreign Language Anxiety
Foreign language anxiety, known as FLA, is widely recognized as a substantial affective factor involved
in the acquisition of a foreign language, being a factor undermines cognitive performance, motivation
and retention in pupils of a second language. Scovel (1978) stated that anxiety is a cornerstone of
individual differences research in applied linguistics, being the first research to accomplish the term
“anxiety” inside the world of the education and the different strategies that were applied during that
time. Then, many studies were conducted in order to specify the FLA until the definition and concept it
is recognized nowadays. It is characterized as a contextually grounded and dynamic construct, with
distinct research moving toward person-centered methodology, cross-cultural and task-specific
pág. 3803
examinations that combine constructs that highlights the feeling of shame, guilt and imposter
phenomenon. (Huang and Liu, 2025). In the article it is highlighted that FLA arises from the interaction
of the student, the classroom and several task factors in the same perspective.
Foreign language speaking anxiety enhanced apparent through dynamic connections between internal
weaknesses and external contextual situations, rather than from any single cause. In his research,
Khoirunnisa, et al. (2025), referred to the social-affective factors were the most frequently reported
triggers, that underscoring the centrality of interpersonal evaluation, peer dynamics, and identity-related
concerns in speaking situations. These anxiety triggers are linked to observable behavioral
manifestations as the main features involved in this aspect, which includes speech disruption, avoidance,
affective and physiological responses, technology-mediated adaptations, and cognitive interference, and
it is suggested that speaking anxiety not only reflects emotional states but also constrains real-time
communicative performance.
Characteristics of FLA
Inside the conceptualization of how FLA is compelled, it is described that it involves several
characteristics that creates the main scenarios where students can be identified to be struggling with this
phenomenon. Features such as apprehension feeling, self-doubt and tension during the L2 performance
in the different skills are visible in students who are going through this issue. In the study conducted by
Yang and Li is explained how the lack of a strong emotional state not only impede a correct performance
but also it is associated with broader physiological distress that includes a low self-esteem and disruptive
behaviors. (Yang & Li, 2025). A great variety of research have been developed to be able to identify
different characteristics of FLA, “dynamic methods offer valuable insight into language anxiety, as they
capture individualized patterns that are invisible in cross-sectional or group-level research. By showing
how anxiety evolves across days within a single learner, the study highlights the fundamentally person-
specific and temporally structured nature of language anxiety” (Botes. et al, 2025).
Effects on the acquisition of a foreign language
Many authors has described the immediate effects on FLA in learners, as Luo (2026) determined in his
study, FLA can be divided into four major categories described as emotion regulation, cognitive
restructuring, skill building and classroom environment, used to build up many strategies and activities
examinations that combine constructs that highlights the feeling of shame, guilt and imposter
phenomenon. (Huang and Liu, 2025). In the article it is highlighted that FLA arises from the interaction
of the student, the classroom and several task factors in the same perspective.
Foreign language speaking anxiety enhanced apparent through dynamic connections between internal
weaknesses and external contextual situations, rather than from any single cause. In his research,
Khoirunnisa, et al. (2025), referred to the social-affective factors were the most frequently reported
triggers, that underscoring the centrality of interpersonal evaluation, peer dynamics, and identity-related
concerns in speaking situations. These anxiety triggers are linked to observable behavioral
manifestations as the main features involved in this aspect, which includes speech disruption, avoidance,
affective and physiological responses, technology-mediated adaptations, and cognitive interference, and
it is suggested that speaking anxiety not only reflects emotional states but also constrains real-time
communicative performance.
Characteristics of FLA
Inside the conceptualization of how FLA is compelled, it is described that it involves several
characteristics that creates the main scenarios where students can be identified to be struggling with this
phenomenon. Features such as apprehension feeling, self-doubt and tension during the L2 performance
in the different skills are visible in students who are going through this issue. In the study conducted by
Yang and Li is explained how the lack of a strong emotional state not only impede a correct performance
but also it is associated with broader physiological distress that includes a low self-esteem and disruptive
behaviors. (Yang & Li, 2025). A great variety of research have been developed to be able to identify
different characteristics of FLA, “dynamic methods offer valuable insight into language anxiety, as they
capture individualized patterns that are invisible in cross-sectional or group-level research. By showing
how anxiety evolves across days within a single learner, the study highlights the fundamentally person-
specific and temporally structured nature of language anxiety” (Botes. et al, 2025).
Effects on the acquisition of a foreign language
Many authors has described the immediate effects on FLA in learners, as Luo (2026) determined in his
study, FLA can be divided into four major categories described as emotion regulation, cognitive
restructuring, skill building and classroom environment, used to build up many strategies and activities